Review Article

Review of Dry Land Afforestation Practices in Pakistan

Bilal Ahmed Qazi, Nowsherwan Zarif, Anwar Ali*, Faizan Ahmed, Asim Karim and Ali Nawaz

Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar-25130, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Received | October 17, 2023; Accepted | June 10, 2024; Published | June 25, 2024

*Correspondence | Anwar Ali, Pakistan Forest Institute (PFI), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar-25130, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Qazi, B.A., N. Zarif, A. Ali, F. Ahmed, A. Karim and A. Nawaz. 2024. Review of dry land afforestation practices in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 74(1): 1-8.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.PJF/2024/74.1.1.8

Keywords | Afforestation, Drought, Arid, Semi-arid, Water harvesting, Pakistan

Copyright: 2024 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Drylands generally receive annual rainfall of less than 500 mm with an aridity index ranging from 0.05 to 0.653 in arid, semi-arid, or dry sub-humid areas (Kemal, 2004). Any tree planting established with natural rainfall and without the help of artificial irrigation may be termed dry afforestation (Siddique et al., 1993). Almost 70% of the total area of Pakistan falls in arid and semi-arid areas, as the northeastern part of Punjab receives annual precipitation of 800 mm while the southwest part of Balochistan receives less than 80 mm of rainfall. About 75% and 85% of KPK and Punjab respectively while, the whole of Sindh and Baluchistan fall in the dry zone (Shah, 2006). A Desert is an area with moisture deficiency and sparse or absent vegetation in temperate, subtropical, and tropical zones (Stringer et al., 2007). Desertifcation, on the other hand, is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas caused by adverse anthropogenic impacts (UNEP, 1990).

The most limiting factor is water scarcity in dry areas for natural resource development for sustainable livelihoods (Kemal, 2004). Timber and fuelwood production as well as forage, crop and fodder production are the main natural resource development to meet the desires and needs of the local inhabitants. The utilization and consumption of these natural resources lack proper planning and scientific management (Prell et al., 2009). Therefore, to enhance these natural resources, rainwater has to be harvested and conserved to produce fodder for livestock and food for humans. Water harvesting technology is cost-effective, as shown by the benefit-cost ratio (Dallman et al., 2021).

In the rain-fed dry zone, the productivity of crops is not optimal due to subsistence farming practices. By using rainwater harvesting techniques, the potential of dry areas can be improved (Baig et al., 2013). Natural forests and rangelands play an important role in the livelihood of the local communities. Afforestation and reforestation by manual methods of watering, such as hand and tanker, are not feasible given the economic perspective. Due to all of these limitations, reforestation in dry areas is one of the challenging issues in meeting conservation needs as well as sustainable development (Shah, 2006).

In the early 1980s, the Pakistan Forest Institute in Peshawar initiated various research experiments across the country to explore different water harvesting techniques for afforestation in arid and semi-arid areas. The findings of these experiments demonstrated that commercial plantations can be established using water harvesting techniques suit the site and planting tree species in the subtropical broad-leave evergreen and tropical thorn forest zones. Water harvesting technology proved to be the most effective, practical, and cost-efficient technique for planting in Pakistan’s arid and semi-arid zones (Sheikh et al., 1982).

 

Table 1: Land use statistics 2018-19 of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (area in Hectares).

S. No	Category	Area	Percentage
1	Cultivated area	1,872,695	22.414%
2	Forest area	1239014	14.829%
3	Non-available for cultivation	3924986	46.977%
4	Cultivable waste	1318462	15.780%

Source: (Bukhari et al., 2012)

 

Background of dryland afforestation in Pakistan

88% of the total area (87.88 million hectares) of Pakistan falls in the arid to semi-arid range. Among the total area, arid, semi-arid, subhumid, and mixed areas are 51.5%, 36.9%, 5.4% and 6.2%, respectively. The solely arid area is 41 million hectares, including about 11 million hectares of hyper-arid climates (PCRWR, 1999). Pakistan is one of the most arid countries with, rainfall of less than 240 mm annually (Farooq et al., 2008). The country’s population, about 62% resides in rural areas that are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods (GoP, 2009).

Land covered by vegetation for more than 10 years is the forest cover (Bodart et al., 2013). During the last few decades, human activities have greatly affacted the vegetation cover of the earth (Fang et al., 2018). In different parts of the country, productive forestry is sometimes practiced in irrigated plantations and riverine forests. However, government-owned forests can only meet a small portion of the timber and fuel wood demand. Most of the timber demand (35%) and nearly all the fuel wood demand (99%) are fulfilled by private farmlands (Shah, 2006).

In order to meet the demand for fuel wood, and timber in the country, there has been a significant focus on promoting farm forestry. Farm forestry is most viable in irrigated areas where a double cropping system allows continuous cultivation throughout the year. However, the potential for farm forestry is limited in rain-fed agricultural areas in semi-arid or arid regions, where only one crop is grown and a fallow period occurs. This is because, during the fallow period in rain-fed areas, unrestricted livestock grazing poses challenges to protecting seedlings (Shah, 2006).

 

Table 2: Growth performance of multipurpose tree species under various water harvesting techniques in 1993.

Techniques	Surface planting			Pit planting			Trench planting			Roaded catchment and trench planting			Roaded catchment planting
Specie	Sur-vival	Dia (cm)	Height (m)	Sur-vival	Dia (cm)	Height (m)	Sur-vival	Dia (cm)	Height (m)	Sur-vival	Dia (cm)	Height (m)	Sur-vival	Dia (cm)	Height (m)
Acacia albida	8	4.5	2.2	10	8.1	3.3	14	9.4	5.2	13	9.8	4.9	14	10.8	5.3
Acacia aneua	5	3.9	4.2	6	3.8	3.8	8	2.9	3.8	4	2.9	4.4	7	2.6	3.5
Acacia tortils	10	4.5	5.4	7	11	5.7	12	12.2	5.7	8	11.7	5.8	12	12.2	6.1
Acacia modesa	12	3.9	3	16	4.3	3.5	14	4.9	3.7	12	4.4	3.4	16	5.1	3.8
Acacia victora	10	5.5	3.5	10	7.1	4.3	5	4.6	4	2	5.1	5.1	5	6.9	4.2
Prosopis cinerara	11	5.3	3	12	5.3	3.6	12	5.9	3.6	11	5.9	3	12	8.5	4.6
Tecoma unduala	14	5.6	3.3	15	6.4	3.2	13	5.5	3.3	15	6.1	3.5	16	5.1	3.1
Parkinsona	4	3.3	3.4	1	3.3	3.9	2	3.6	3.9	7	3.2	3.3	7	2.8	2.9
Ave Survived plants	9	5.2	3.5	9	6.2	3.9	10	6.3	4.2	9	6.2	4.2	11	6.8	4.2

Source: (Saddiqui et al., 1993).

 

A choice is to utilize the dry zone regions to produce timber, fuel wood, and fodder. As mentioned earlier, due to limited rainfall, only irrigated plantations were deemed financially viable. However, the focus on food production has rendered the establishment of new irrigated plantations impossible. Even the existing irrigated plantations are being questioned, as using irrigation water and valuable land for forest trees is not feasible. The only possibility lies in promoting dry land forestry through the implemention of dry land plantation techniques (Shah, 2006).

Over the past two decades, efforts have been made to expand forest coverage in the dry zone to fulfill the demand for fuel wood, timber, and fodder. Extensive research and development activities have led to the development of water harvesting techniques for planting in arid regions. Furthermore, suitable tree and shrub species have been identified and tested for planting in various ecological zones. Selection of appropriate techniques and native species for the establishment of fuelwood plantations in the subtropical thorn forest and dry temperate zones to provide timber, fuelwood, and fodder.

Pakistan forest institute (PFI) research findings regarding dry land afforestation

In early 1980, the Pakistan Forest Institute Peshawar began a research project for dry land afforestation throughout the country. In light of the research experiments, water harvesting is recommended as the most cost-effective and practicable method for reforestation in the arid and semi-arid zones of Pakistan. A few research findings from the research experiments are given below:

During 1980, water harvesting techniques were compared with pit and surface planting to raise multipurpose tree species at Dagarkotli and Bhabarband. (1) Roaded catchment, one-meter slope (1:3) with a trench: 0.3 meter deep. (2) Roaded catchment, one-meter slope (1:3) without trench. (3) Trench 0.3 meters wide and 0.3 meters deep. (4) Pits 0.3 meters deep with a 0.3-meter diameter. (5) Surface planting (control). Four different tree species were planted in the experiment. Growth data, as shown in (Table 2) was collected in April 1993.

In 1984, 15 multipurpose tree species were planted using water harvesting techniques. The preliminary results recorded the survival and height of tree species (Table 3 and Figure 1).

 

Table 3: Survival and height of multipurpose tree species at Bhabarbund, Sindh, in 1984.

S. No		Deep planting (30 cm)		Shallow planting (18cm)
		Survival %	Height (cm)	Survival %	Height (cm)
1	Acacia aneura	30	102	30	79
2	Acacia tortilis	66	298	45	290
3	Tecoma undulata	60	156	35	104
4	Acacia modesta	47	45	43	52

Source: (Sheikh et al., 1984)

 

In August 1992, an experimental investigation was initiated at Ratta Kulachi in D.I. Khan to explore the potential for afforestation of Acacia nilotica in loamy-clay soil in rain-fed conditions. The study utilized a randomized complete block (RCB) layout and four different intervention methods. Each method involved planting twenty tube seedlings that were one year old. The four methods tested were catchment areas with basic holes, catchment areas with soil enhancements, isolated planting basins, and conventional dug pits, as shown in Table 4.

 

Table 4: Effect of water harvesting and soil amelioration on survival, height, and diameter of Acacia nilotica at D.I. Khan.

S. No	Treatment	Survival %	Diameter (cm)	Height (m)
1	Roaded catchment and soil amelioration	86	4.6	2.17
2	Roaded catchment	95	4.7	2.2
3	Individual Basin	97	4.9	2.32
4	Pits	81	2.5	1.41

 

Sheikh (1988) different plots were established in Kharian, employing a split-plot experimental design and featuring three repeated measures. Each plot contained twenty specimens of various multi-use tree species. Four water conservation strategies were assessed: V-shaped micro-catchments, gradonii systems, conservation furrows, and traditional pit-based planting methods. Metrics on tree survival rates and growth heights were documented in 1991, as summarized in Table 5.

In 1982, a research study was conducted at Rakh Dagar Kotli Bakhar to assess the efficiency of different treatments of the catchment plots to induce maximum runoff. A total of 30 catchment plots were prepared and treated with (i) coal tar cover, (ii) cement and sand, (iii) lime concretion, (iv) soil plus wheat straw, (v) mechanical stabilization, (vi) sodium carbonate spray, (vii) natural grass cover (viii) polythene sheet cover. The most effective and economical treatment for rainwater harvesting was plastermud (Soil + wheat straw), which induced an average maximum runoff of 11.03 m3/catchment sample plot, receiving 78.14% of the total rainfall. While cement plaster, coal tar cover, lime concretion, mechanical stabilization and natural grass cover were found ineffective (Sheikh et al., 1982).

In 1987, a distinct study was undertaken in Hangu, located in the Kohat district of KPK. The primary goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of three specific water harvesting and conservation methods: V-shaped micro-catchments, contour trenches designed for conservation, and ditches tailored for hillside terrains. These methods were tested in conjunction with planting four tree species: Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and Leucaena leucocephala. The detailed outcomes of the study can be found in Table 6, as documented by (Shah, 1987).

 

Table 5: Survival and height of plants under various water harvesting techniques at Kharian in 1991.

S. No	Species
	Water conservation techniques	Eucalyptus camaldulensis		Leucaena leucocephala		Acacia nilotica		Acacia modesta
		Survival %	Ht (cm)	Survival %	Ht (cm)	Survival %	Ht (cm)	Survival %	Ht (cm)
1	Conservation trenches	72	206	65	172	45	108	36	48
2	Micro catchments	55	169	65	168	40	132	39	59
3	Gradonii	38	177	62	189	48	135	40	49
4	Simple pits	25	59	59	122	23	60	26	46

 

Table 6: Testing of water harvesting techniques at Hangu (Kohat).

Water harvesting techniques	Tree species	Results % (Survival & Growth)
V-shaped micro-catchments	Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis Leucaena leucocephala	Techniques with 80-100% survival and good growth.
Conservation contour trenches
Hillside ditches

Source: Shah, 1987.

 

Table 7: Results of different water harvesting techniques at Quetta and Loralae.

S. No	Water harvesting techniques	Tree species	Results % (Survival)
1	V-shaped micro-catchments	Pistacea khinjuk, Fraxinus xanthxyloids, Prunus eburnean, Prosopis juliflora	All the four species gave 50-65% survival with water harvesting techniques, while there was no survival in case of planting in the simple plant pits.
2	Conservation contour trenches
3	Hillside ditches
4	Simple plant pits		0% Survival

Source: Shah, 1987.

 

However, in 1987 three indigenous species Pistacea khinjuk, Fraxinus xanthxyloids, Prunus eburnean and one exotic tree species Prosopis juliflora were planted in V-shaped micro-catchments, conservation contour trenches, and hillside ditches. An experiment was laid out in Quetta and Loralae to investigate water harvesting techniques. The results of the research study are shown in Table 7.

According to Shah (1991), a study was conducted in Loralai, Baluchistan, to assess management systems suitable for the dry zone area. Five catchments were chosen and treated with different water conservation techniques. Three plant species were planted: Acacia modesta, Tecoma undulate, and Eucalyptus camaldulensis. The results of the study are shown in Table 8.

 

Table 8: Suitability of different management systems for dry zone area (Loralae Baluchistan) (1990).

S. No	Water harvesting techniques	Tree species	Survival Percentage
1	Contour trenches	Acacia modesta, Tecoma undulate Eucalyptus camaldulensis	82%
2	Simple conventional pits
3	Hillside ditches		78%

 

Similarly, another study was conducted in Vehar District Loralae, to determine the effect of water spreading on the establishment of trees. Two catchments were selected and treated with and without water spreading. The plant species Leucaena leucocephala was planted in both catchments. The results of the study are shown in the Table 11 88% and 78% survival of seedlings in plots with and without water spreading (Table 9) (Shah, 1991).

 

Table 9: Effect of water spreading on the establishment of trees at Loralae Baluchistan.

S. No	Treatment	Tree species	Survival percentage
1	Water spreading	Leucaena leucocephala	88%
2	Without water spreading		78%

Source: (Shah, 1991).

 

Shah (1992) carried out a study to develop an agroforestry system using water harvesting techniques in a semi-arid zone at Kharian. 2 slope lengths of 4m and 5m and 3 slope gradients of 7%, 10% and 15% of roaded catchments were tested to determine the optimum slope length and gradient. The results of the study are shown in Table 10.

 

Table 10: Effective slope length vs slope gradient by using water harvesting techniques in semi-arid zone (Kharian).

S. No.	Slope length	Slope gradient	Result
1	4 m	7%, 10% and 15%	A 4-meter slope length with 7% gradient is more effective in increasing the runoff and is economical to construct.
2	5 m

 

During 2018, a similar study was carried out to evaluate the effect of different water conservation techniques on the growth and height of different tree species in the Karak and Mianghundi (Quetta) and Mastung districts of Baluchistan. Data on the survival and height of all species was recorded and analyzed (Tables 11 and 12), according to (Siraj and Baloch, 2018).

 

Table 11: Survival percentage of plants under different water conservation techniques (WCT) at Mastung (survival of 60 Plants).

S. No	Water conservation techniques	Tamarix gallica		Calligonum spp.		Saccharum spp.		Arundo donax		Average %
		Survival %		Survival %		Survival %		Survival %
		No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%
1	Trenches	49	82	39	65	38	63	43	72	70.5
2	Simple pits	35	58	34	57	35	58	36	60	58.0
3	Surface planting	25	42	17	28	23	38	23	38	36.5
	Average	42	70	37	61	37	61	40	66	64.5

Source: Siraj and Baloch, 2018.

 

Table 12: Average height data of Atriplex canescens under different water conservation techniques (m).

S. No	Water harvesting technique	Height (m)					Total	Average
		Plant 1	Plant 2	Plant 3	Plant 4	Plant 5
1	Earthen Bunds	1.46	1.41	1.38	1.42	1.39	7.06	1.41
2	Trenches	1.38	1.35	1.36	1.32	1.34	6.75	1.35
3	Micro-catchment	1.36	1.34	1.35	1.33	1.35	6.73	1.34
4	Eyebrow pits	1.34	1.36	1.33	1.35	1.34	6.72	1.34
5	Av. of W.C.T.	1.38	1.36	1.35	1.35	1.35	6.81	1.36
6	Simple pits	1.28	1.26	1.25	1.29	1.27	6.35	1.27

Source: (Siraj and Baloch, 2018).

 

 

Conclusions and Recomendations

Research findings revealed that boat-shaped sowing pits are effective for sowing indigenous tree species on steep slopes. At the same time, conservation contour trenches are suitable for moderate slopes to trap runoff and conserve water for planting. Similarly, V-shaped micro-catchments are effective and economical techniques for collecting rainwater and concentrating it for planting. Eyebrow plant pits proved helpful in trapping runoff and facilitating grass cover and tree planting, while hillside ditches proved suitable for water storage and tree planting in hilly areas.

Research findings also revealed that saucer-shaped plant pits are effective for runoff collection and plant growth in plain areas. Similarly, individual basins square or rectangular basins with ridges have also proved satisfactory for runoff collection and planting. Roaded catchments are also advisable for rainwater harvesting and successful plantations in plain areas.

Likewise, conservation benches for range improvement in hilly areas proved satisfactory in runoff production for grass sowing. The contour trenches with a length of 3m length and a width of 0.3m and depth are effective for sowing good quality grass on a small scale in hilly areas. Hillside ditches are suitable for developing silvo pastoral systems at a nominal cost for producing forage and fodder for the livestock.

Comparably roaded catchments are a suitable technique for grass sowing in plain areas. Roaded catchments also proved effective for planting fodder trees in the same areas. Water spreading proved a more useful technique for fodder trees and perennial grasses than crops because the deep-rooted trees, bushes, and grasses can extract the moisture in the deeper layers.

By adopting these techniques, Pakistan can enhance water resource availability, improve tree survival rates, and promote sustainable land use practices. To fully realize the benefits of water harvesting, it is essential to integrate these techniques into policy frameworks, provide necessary support and training, and foster collaboration among stakeholders. Implementing these recommendations will contribute to sustainable land management, water conservation, and improved livelihoods in arid and semi-arid areas of Pakistan.

It is therefore recommended to promote the adoption of suitable water harvesting techniques for dry land forestry and range improvement in different geographical areas based on these research findings.

Novelty Statement

The paper reviewed past dry afforesation tecniques which will contribute to enhance forest cover and dry land management as well.

Author’s Contribution

Qazi Bilal Ahmed: Wrote the manuscript and reviewed.

Nowsherwan Zarif: Investigation

Anwar Ali: Conceptualization

Faizan Ahmed: Resources Software

Asim Karim: Visualization

Ali Nawaz: Edited and corrected manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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