Research Article

Puddled Soil Settling Period and Seedling Age Affect Growth, Productivity and Economic Benefits of Mechanically Transplanted Rice

Ali Zohaib1*, Muzzammil Hussain2, Ishtiaq Hassan3, Muhammad Tahir Latif2, Tahira Tabassum1 and Naeem Faisal2

1Cereals and Pulses Section, Agronomic Research Institute, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad 38850, Pakistan; 2Adaptive Research Farm, Gujranwala 52200, Pakistan; 3Directorate General Agriculture (Extension and Adaptive Research) Punjab, Lahore 54000, Pakistan.

Received | May 26, 2023; Accepted | December 31, 2023; Published | January 17, 2024

*Correspondence | Ali Zohaib, Cereals and Pulses Section, Agronomic Research Institute, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad 38850, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Zohaib, A., M. Hussain, I. Hassan, M.T. Latif, T. Tabassum and N. Faisal. 2024. Puddled soil settling period and seedling age affect growth, productivity and economic benefits of mechanically transplanted rice. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 37(1): 29-38.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjar/2024/37.1.29.38

Keywords | Economic benefits, Grain yield, Puddled soil settling period, Root growth, Seedling age, Stand establishment

Copyright: 2024 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is cultivated and utilized as staple food in a large number of countries over the world. Traditionally, rice is planted by transplanting nursery manually in the puddled soil that is quite strenuous and time consuming (Thomas, 2002; Farooq et al., 2007). In recent years, a marked increase in labor scarcity and cost has occurred demanding a shift of transplanting method from manual to mechanical (Wassmann et al., 2004; Shinde et al., 2018; Zohaib et al., 2022). Mechanical transplanting is the best alternate to overcome the problems of labor shortage, high cost, less yield and economic losses which are faced in manual transplanting method (Mann and Ashraf, 2001; Rani and Jayakiran, 2010; Malik et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2017). Mechanical transplanting ensures optimum plant spacing and plant density which regulates the tiller production, radiation use efficiency, photosynthesis, dry mass production and crop productivity (Huang et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2019).

Although the mechanical transplanting technology has been successfully induced in rice-wheat cropping system of Pakistan (Zohaib et al., 2022) but still there is a need for research to eliminate various problems associated with it e.g. missing hills, early transplanting shock, poor early stand establishment, inadequate root growth and plant competition etc. These associated problems are deemed to be eliminated through further investigations by keeping different agronomic factors in mind in order to improve the grain yield and sustainability. Although previous research has presented the yield benefits of MTR but only a few studies are present which address the site specific problems such as adequate soil conditions, seeding rate, stand establishment and plant density, seedling age, seedling competition and nursery growing conditions, and their interactions etc. (He et al., 2018; Rashid et al., 2018; Mamun et al., 2020; Dou et al., 2021; Zohaib et al., 2022). Early and better stand establishment along with less transplanting shock is essential for avoiding missing hills and acquiring optimum plant density to improve plant and root growth, tillering capacity, early acquisition of TDM accumulation and better productivity (Liu et al., 2015; Zohaib et al., 2022). Among various factors responsible for better stand establishment, extended vegetative growth period for dry matter production, and higher crop yield of MTR the proper puddled soil condition and seedling age at the time of nursery transplanting are crucial (Shen et al., 2006; Mamun et al., 2020).

In rice, puddling is practiced in south Asian countries to transplant nursery, reduce water and nutrient leaching by breaking the non-capillary pore spaces and avoid weeds (Fang et al., 2019; Hossain et al., 2020; Nazir et al., 2022). Puddling refers to the process of working of tillage implements in saturated or near saturated soil to pulverize and destroy soil structure, and create soil layer impervious to water (Kirchhof et al., 2011). In MTR, young nursery is transplanted hence puddled soil characteristics such as soil type, puddling depth, sinkage of soil particles, soil bonding and strength, and porosity affect the early seedling establishment, root growth and productivity of crop plants (Kirchhof et al., 2000; Fang et al., 2019). Soil settling after puddling depends on the settling period which varies with soil texture. For instance, sandy soils take less time while clayey soils take more time for soil settling after puddling (Mamun et al., 2020). Hence, it is crucial to optimize puddled soil settling period to obtain puddled soil condition suitable for better and early stand establishment, optimum plant density, and enhanced rice growth and productivity.

In MTR, optimal aged rice nursery is essential to achieve proper early seedling establishment, extended crop growth period, photosynthesis and dry matter accumulation, and crop yield (Liu et al., 2015, 2017). Among various agronomic factors contributing towards the crop yield of MTR the seedling age is the most crucial factor even preceding the sowing density and fertilization in seedbed (Shen et al., 2006). In rice-wheat cropping system of Gujranwala, Pakistan transplanting of sub or supra-optimal aged nursery occurs due to less availability of mechanical transplanters and/or weather conditions. Transplantation of young nursery seedlings is often prone to more transplanting shock and even seedling death leading to missing hills, low plant density and crop yield (Kewat et al., 2002). On the other hand, transplantation of older seedling results in poor tillering, shortened growth period, decreased dry matter accumulation and productivity of rice (Pasuquin et al., 2008; Huo et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2021). Nevertheless, previous research has considered 25 days or less old seedlings suitable for MTR due to better stand establishment, improved production of dry matter and tillers following transplanting (Yu et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2008; Li et al., 2020).

Puddled soil settling period and seedling age affects early seedling establishment, crop growth and yield of MTR. In present study, we hypothesized that crop yield could be improved by reducing missing hills, while improving root growth and dry matter accumulation through optimized puddled soil settling period and seedling age for MTR. This two-year study was accomplished with objectives to evaluate different puddled soil settling periods and seedling age for reducing missing hills, and enhancing plant and root growth, and TDM accumulation for improving the grain yield and economic benefits of MTR.

Materials and Methods

Treatments and experimental design

Study was carried out at Adaptive Research Farm, Gujranwala, Pakistan (32°12ʹ21ʺN 74°13ʹ49ʺE, 226 m above sea level) during 2020 and 2021. Before transplanting the nursery, soil physico-chemical properties were assessed by collecting and analyzing the samples (0-30 cm depth) from experimental field. Soil was heavy clay loam with 0.87% organic matter, 8.0 pH, 2.1 mS/cm EC (electrical conductivity), 0.05% total N, 11.1 ppm available P and 172 ppm available K. Experimentation was performed by utilizing the RCBD with split-plot arrangement and three replications. In order to minimize experimental error, blocks were made within experimental field and complete set of treatments was randomized within each block. Net plot area was 17.5 m × 7.6 m. The treatments were consisted of three puddled soil settling periods and three nursery seedling ages. Treatments detail is given in Table 1. Meteorological conditions occurring during experimentation are given in Table 2.

Crop husbandry

The experiment was conducted by using the fine rice cultivar Super basmati. The nursery sowing was carried out in trays (length 60 cm × width 30 cm × depth 2.5 cm) with five days interval to achieve the desired nursery age according to the treatments starting on 17th and 7th June during 2020 and 2021, respectively. The seed rate of 90 g per tray was used as optimized in our previous study (Zohaib et al., 2022) using seeding machine and 250 trays ha-1 were used for transplanting nursery. The field was divided in three main plots and puddling was performed in each main plot with 24 hours difference according to the treatments. Transplanting was performed with 4-rows walk after type rice transplanter on 17th and 7th July in 2020 and 2021, respectively. The spacing between rows and plants within rows was kept 25 cm and 20 cm, respectively. Fertilizers (NPK) were applied @ 120-88-62 kg/ha. The K and P were employed as basal dose using muriate of potash and diammonium phosphate, respectively. The N was employed in three splits using urea i.e. basal dose, 30 days after transplanting (DAT) and 45 DAT. Zinc sulfate (33%) @ 15 kg ha-1 was employed at 10 DAT. Irrigation was applied to keep water standing (5 cm depth) and later up to field capacity level. Irrigation was stopped 12-15 days before harvesting. Plant protection was ensured by local recommendations. Crop was harvested and threshed in 1st week of November during both years.

 

Table 1: Treatments details of experiment.

Treatments
Puddled soil settling period	Seedling age
24 hours	20 days
24 hours	25 days
24 hours	30 days
48 hours	20 days
48 hours	25 days
48 hours	30 days
72 hours	20 days
72 hours	25 days
72 hours	30 days

 

Table 2: Meteorological conditions during rice growing seasons.

Month	Temperature (°C)						Total rainfall (mm)		Relative humidity (%)
	Monthly maximum		Monthly minimum		Daily mean
	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021
June	37.5	39.1	23.9	21.9	30.7	30.5	97.6	26.6	75.1	71.3
July	35.9	35.0	26.5	26.4	31.2	30.7	79.6	301.2	80.3	83.2
August	35.1	36.5	26.5	27.0	30.4	31.8	333.3	60.5	89.5	85.1
September	36.1	33.7	25.0	24.5	30.6	29.1	49.2	80.1	85.4	85.9
October	33.6	31.8	17.7	18.6	25.6	25.2	0.0	54.2	82.2	81.6
November	24.8	26.3	10.8	10.8	17.8	18.5	15.5	1	84.3	83.4

 

Source: Meteorological Department, Punjab

 

Measurements

On completion of emergence the number of plants per tray was counted from selected three nursery trays from each treatment. The seedling shoot and root length was determined by carefully uprooting the five seedlings from selected trays, measuring with scale, and averaging. Afterwards, the shoots and roots of seedlings were separated, dried in oven and their weight was determined with weighing balance. The number of filled and missing hills m-2 was determined at harvesting from each replication. Transplanting efficiency was calculated by using the formula [Transplanting efficiency = (number of filled hills m-2/total number of hills m-2) × 100]. At maturity, plant height was measured from randomly selected plants using a meter rod. The root length was measured with meter rod by digging and uprooting selected plants. Afterwards, root length was divided by plant height to determine the root/shoot ratio. The productive tillers m-2 was counted from randomly selected area from each replication. The grains per panicle were counted from panicles of selected plants from each replication and averaging. Thousand grains were counted and weighed using a weighing balance for determination of 1000-grain weight. Plants from selected one m2 area were manually harvested and weighed before threshing to determine TDM. Afterwards, harvested plants were threshed and weighed to determine the grain yield.

Economic analysis

Total cost, net returns and BCR was determined by following CIMMYT (1988). Local market prices of all inputs (seed and treatments, land preparation and transplanting, fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides, labor etc.) used in the experiment was calculated to determine fixed cost. The variable cost included harvesting cost on produce share basis. Fixed and variable costs were summed to determine the total cost. Net returns were determined by subtracting total cost from gross income. The BCR was computed by dividing gross income with total cost.

Statistical analysis

Normality of data was checked using scatter plot. The year effect was found significant as a result of paired T-test, and therefore analyzed and presented separately. Further analysis was performed with 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Steel et al., 1997). The treatments means were compared by using least significant difference (LSD) as post-hoc test at 5% probability. The treatments’ means of main effects are presented in tables while the treatments’ means of significant interaction effects are presented in figures.

Results and Discussion

Nursery seedling traits

Seedling age of rice nursery significantly affected all studied traits pertaining to seedling shoot and root, during both years. However, there was no significant influence of seedling age on number of plants per tray. There was an increase in seedling length and dry weight traits of rice nursery with increase in nursery age. Maximum length and dry weight of shoots and roots of rice nursery seedlings was produced in 30 days old nursery (Table 3). Results revealed that old aged seedlings had higher growth and dry weight as compared to young seedlings. The increase in seedling growth with seedling age was associated with more time for growth and dry matter production. Li et al. (2020) described that older plants of rice had higher growth and dry matter due to more time for storage of photo-assimilates.

Plant density and transplanting efficiency

Puddled soil settling period and nursery age significantly affected the number of filled and missing hills m-2, and transplanting efficiency after transplanting of rice. Number of filled hills m-2 and transplanting efficiency were increased while missing hills m-2 were decreased with increase in puddled soil settling period. Across seedling age, maximum increase in filled hills (12-13%) and transplanting

 

Table 3: Effect of seedling age on seedling traits of rice nursery.

Seedling age	No. of plants tray-1		Seedling shoot length (cm)		Seedling root length (cm)		Seedling shoot dry weight (mg)		Seedling root dry weight (mg)
	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021
20 d	2127 a	1912 a	18.3 c	18.9 c	9.9 c	10.7 c	47.24 c	45.25 c	18.95 c	21.22 c
25 d	2146 a	1940 a	23.3 b	24.0 b	12.8 b	12.5 b	56.38 b	57.74 b	24.37 b	26.25 b
30 d	2134 a	1927 a	26.3 a	27.2 a	15.1 a	14.6 a	63.16 a	64.55 a	27.95 a	29.11 a
P < 0.05	0.8636	0.9072	0.0211	0.0032	0.0018	0.0090	0.0030	0.0032	0.0018	0.0090

 

Means in a column having same letters don’t differ significantly at P < 0.05

 

efficiency (12-13%), and decrease in missing hills m-2 (5-6%) of rice crop was caused by 72 hours puddled soil settling period, as compared to 24 hours puddled soil settling period, during both years. Likewise, increase in seedling age improved the number of filled hills and transplanting efficiency, while decreased the missing hill m-2 in rice crop. Across puddled soil settling period, maximum increase in number of filled hills and transplanting efficiency (6-13%), and decrease in missing hills m-2 (3-6%) was recorded by transplanting 30 and 25 days old nursery during 2020 and 2021, respectively, as compared to 20 days old nursery, during both years (Table 4). Furthermore, the interaction of puddled soil settling period and seedling age was significant for filled and missing hills m-2, and transplanting efficiency as well, during both years (Table 4). The greatest increase in number of filled hills and transplanting efficiency, and decrease in missing hills m-2 in rice was found by transplanting 25 days old nursery after 72 hours puddled soil settling period during both years; however, transplanting 30 days old nursery after 48 hours puddled soil settling period produced similar results during 2020 (Figure 1).

 

Table 4: Effect of puddled soil settling period and seedling age on number of filled hills, missing hills and transplanting efficiency of mechanically transplanted rice.

Treatments	No. of filled hills m-2		No. of missing hills m-2		Transplanting efficiency (%)
	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021
Puddled soil settling period (P)
24 hours	15.7 b	15.3 b	3.3 a	3.7 a	82.5	83.6
48 hours	16.9 a	16.1 b	2.1 b	2.9 a	88.9	84.8
72 hours	17.7 a	17.1 a	1.3 b	1.9 b	93.0	61.4
Seedling age (S)
20 d	15.6 b	15.8 b	3.4 a	3.2 a	81.9	87.7
25 d	17.0 a	16.7 a	2.0 b	2.3 b	89.5	84.8
30 d	17.7 a	16.1 ab	1.3 b	2.9 ab	93.0	57.3
Source of variation (Pr > F)
P	0.0056	0.0088	0.0056	0.0088	0.0057	0.0087
S	0.0022	0.0147	0.0022	0.0147	0.0021	0.0148
P × S	0.0231	0.0409	0.0231	0.0409	0.0227	0.0404

 

Means in a column having same letters don’t differ significantly at P < 0.05

 

The increase in puddled soil settling period increased the number of filled hills while the number of missing hills was decreased which increased the transplanting efficiency (Table 4) and it might be attributed to soil texture. In present study, the soil of experimental area was heavy clay; therefore, took more time for settling (Uzoegbo, 2016). After puddling, sandy soils take less time while clayey soils take more time for settling (Uzoegbo, 2016; Mamun et al., 2020). Furthermore, the results revealed that well settled soil created more grip to hold the seedlings due to which seedling establishment after transplanting was improved leading to less missing hills (Mamun et al., 2020). Previous research has reported results similar to our present study (Paul et al., 2016; Mamun et al., 2020). In present study, transplantation of 25 days old seedlings substantially increased the filled hills and reduced the missing hills, as compared to 20 and 30 days old nursery (Table 4). This might be because the too young or old seedlings are more susceptible to transplanting shock leading to poor stand establishment and plant growth after transplanting (Li et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021). Virk et al. (2020) reported that transplanting of older seedlings (i.e. 35 days) showed higher mortality as compared to younger seedlings in hand transplanted rice under system of alternate wetting and drying. However, our study results are supported by previous reports (Zhang et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2017).

 

Table 5: Effect of puddled soil settling period and seedling age on growth and yield related attributes of mechanically transplanted rice.

Treatments	Plant height (cm)		Root length (cm)		Root/Shoot ratio		No. of productive tillers m-2
	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021	2020	2021
Puddled soil settling period (P)
24 hours	116.7 b	119.8 c	35.0 b	36.0 b	0.30 b	0.30 b	302 b	320 b
48 hours	118.7 b	123.1 b	36.1 a	37.5 b	0.30 b	0.30 b	335 a	329 b
72 hours	121.3 a	124.7 a	38.6 a	39.6 a	0.32 a	0.32 a	338 a	339 a
Seedling age (S)
20 d	118.6 a	121.9 a	36.3 a	37.0 a	0.31 a	0.30 a	317 b	320 c
25 d	119.1 a	122.8 a	36.8 a	38.2 a	0.31 a	0.31 a	337 a	336 a
30 d	119.0 a	122.9 a	36.7 a	37.8 a	0.31 a	0.31 a	322 b	332 b
Source of variation (Pr > F)
P	0.0176	0.0000	0.0313	0.0173	0.0450	0.0178	0.0097	0.0106
S	0.8547	0.5099	0.3785	0.4454	0.6929	0.3628	0.0310	0.0000
P × S	0.7784	0.9138	0.9962	0.8189	0.9243	0.5789	0.0117	0.0448

 

Means in a column having same letters don’t differ significantly at P < 0.05

 

Plant and root growth

Plant growth of rice was significantly affected by puddled soil settling period; however, seedling age didn’t affect significantly (Table 5). Similarly, the interaction effect of puddled soil settling period and seedling age on rice growth was non-significant (Table 5). An increase in plant growth of rice occurred by increasing the puddled soil settling period after puddling for transplanting of rice nursery. Across seedling age, the highest increase in plant height (4%), root length (10%) and root/shoot ratio (7%) was recorded by transplanting rice nursery after 72 hours of puddled soil settling period as compared to 24 hours puddled soil settling time, during both years (Table 5).

Puddling affects the soil structure by increasing or decreasing the bulk density, changing macro-pores to micro-pores and decreasing soil strength which affects the root growth (Rezaei et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2014; Fang et al., 2019). In present study, increase in puddled soil settling period improved the root growth and plant height of MTR (Table 5) which might be associated with optimum soil bulk density and soil strength required to support the transplanted seedlings. Previous research has found that puddling causes maximum decrease in bulk density and soil strength (Rezaei et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2016) which regains for supporting seedlings with soil settling (Mamun et al., 2020). However, later on the continuous cycles of wetting and drying increase soil bulk density and strength until crop harvest which could severely limit the root growth (Lima et al., 2009; Deng et al., 2014; Fang et al., 2019).

Grain yield and related attributes

Puddled soil settling period and seedling age of nursery significantly affected production of productive tillers, TDM and grain yield, during both years. However, 1000-grain weight was significantly affected by puddled soil settling period while grains panicle-1 were not affected significantly by either puddled soil settling period or seedling age, during both years (Table 6). Increase in puddled soil settling period enhanced the yield related attributes and yield of rice. Across seedling age, the highest increase in productive tillers (6-12%), 1000-grain weight (2-6%), TDM (9-11%) and grain yield (11-14%) was produced by 72 hours puddled soil settling period, as compared to 24 hours puddled soil settling period. Similarly, increase in seedling age improved the yield related attributes and yield of rice. Across puddled soil settling period, transplanting of 25 days old seedlings caused highest increase in productive tillers m-2 (5-6%), TDM (6-8%) and grain yield (5-9%) of rice, as compared to 20 days old seedlings, during both years (Table 6). Interaction of puddled soil settling period and seedling age significantly affected the productive tillers and grain yield of MTR (Table 6). Highest number of productive tillers was produced by transplanting 30 days old nursery at 48 hours puddled soil settling period and 25 days old nursery at 72 hours puddled soil settling period during 2020 and 2021, respectively. Grain yield of MTR was increased the most by transplanting 25 days old nursery at 72 hours puddled soil settling period (Figure 2).

 

Table 6: Effect of puddled soil settling period and seedling age on grain yield and related attributes of mechanically transplanted rice.

Treatments	No. of grains panicle-1			1000-grain weight (g)		Total dry mass (t ha-1)		Grain yield (kg ha-1)
	2020	2021		2020	2021	2020	2021	2020		2021
Puddled soil settling period (P)
24 hours	110.3 a	105.7 a	22.56 ab		21.11 b	16.70 c	14.24 c	4170 c		3589 b
48 hours	112.4 a	106.9 a	22.22 b		21.56 b	17.84 b	14.74 b	4462 b		3722 b
72 hours	113.1 a	108.0 a	23.06 a		22.33 a	18.62 a	15.49 a	4770 a		3971 a
Seedling age (S)
20 d	112.4 a	106.2 a		22.56 a	21.44 a	17.33 b	14.22 b		4370 b		3574 c
25 d	111.1 a	107.2 a		22.83 a	22.00 a	18.29 a	15.30 a		4605 a		3912 a
30 d	112.3 a	107.1 a		22.44 a	21.56 a	17.54 b	14.94 ab		4427 b		3796 b
Source of variation (Pr > F)
P	0.4036	0.3829		0.0389	0.0177	0.0044	0.0003	0.0010		0.0063
S	0.4282	0.7528		0.4451	0.2450	0.0326	0.0479	0.0121		0.0001
P × S	0.9083	0.9375		0.8938	0.7110	0.2409	0.9423	0.0257		0.0368

 

Means in a column having same letters don’t differ significantly at P < 0.05

 

 

In present study, grain yield was improved with increase in puddled soil settling period (Table 6, Figure 2) which was associated with increase in dry matter accumulation, productive tillers (Table 5, Figure 2) and grain weight (Table 6). The MTR with 72 hours puddled soil settling period had less missing hills (Table 4) and better root growth (Table 5) which resulted in higher productive tillers and better grain weight due to improved plant water and nutrient uptake ability. Similarly, Mamun et al. (2020) has reported improved grain yield of MTR with increased puddled soil settling period. In present study, the seedling age also affected the grain yield of MTR and maximum grain yield was recorded by transplanting 25 days old seedlings (Table 6, Figure 2). This increase in grain yield was due to better dry matter production and production of more productive tillers than 20 or 30 days seedlings (Tables 4-5; Figure 2). Previous research has also considered 25 days or less old seedlings suitable for MTR due to better dry matter and tillers production after transplanting (Yu et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2008; Li et al., 2020).

Economic analysis

Variable cost, gross income, net returns and BCR varied with puddled soil settling period and seedling age. The economic benefits and BCR were increased with an increase in puddled soil settling period and seedling age of rice nursery. Highest average variable cost (Rs. 33013), gross income (Rs. 279101), net returns (Rs. 129368) and BCR (1.86) was recorded by transplanting 25 days old nursery at 72 hours puddled soil settling period and it was followed by 30 days old nursery at 72 hours puddled soil settling period (Table 7). In present study increase in grain yield by increasing the puddled soil settling period along with 25 days old nursery seedlings caused an increase in the gross income and net returns which ensued in higher BCR (Table 7). Previous studies have reported that better management of MTR causes an increase in yield and reduces the yield losses which consequence in better net returns and BCR (Dongarwar et al., 2018; Zohaib et al., 2022).

 

Table 7: Effect of puddled soil settling period and seedling age on economic efficiency of mechanically transplanted rice.

Puddled soil settling period	Seedling age	Adjusted Grain yield (t ha-1)	Gross income (Rs. ha-1)	Variable cost (Rs. ha-1)	Total cost (Rs. ha-1)	Net returns (Rs. ha-1)	Benefit cost ratio
24 hours	20 d	3.39	230826	26978	143698	87127	1.61
	25 d	3.65	247369	29046	145766	101603	1.70
	30 d	3.44	234555	27444	144164	90391	1.63
48 hours	20 d	3.53	240205	28151	144871	95335	1.66
	25 d	3.71	251520	29565	146285	105235	1.72
	30 d	3.81	257595	30324	147044	110551	1.75
72 hours	20 d	3.81	257698	30337	147057	110641	1.75
	25 d	4.14	279101	33013	149733	129368	1.86
	30 d	3.85	260519	30690	147410	113109	1.77

 

Adjusted grain yield: 10% less than actual grain yield; Cost and income was estimated by using the prevailing market prices for inputs and paddy, respectively, in Pakistan.

 

Conclusions and Recommendations

Puddled soil settling period and seedling age significantly affected the missing and filled hills, growth and yield of MTR. Grain yield and economic returns of MTR were improved by 72 hours puddled soil settling period and 25 days seedling age by enhancing the root growth, TDM production, productive tillers and grains per panicle of MTR; and hence could be adopted for profitable crop production.

Acknowledgement

Agriculture (Ext&AR) Department, Govt. of the Punjab, Pakistan is acknowledged for providing the support and funding to conduct this study.

Novelty Statement

Determination of optimum seedling age and puddled soil settling period could improve the root growth, yield and economic benefits of MTR. Present study was performed to evaluate different puddled soil settling periods and seedling age for reducing missing hills and improving stand establishment, plant and root growth and yield of MTR for enhancing the economic benefits.

Author’s Contribution

Ali Zohaib: Carried out planning of study, experimentation, data collection and analysis, and write-up of article.

Muzzammil Hussain: Supervised study and reviewed paper.

Ishtiaq Hassan: Gave technical input during planning of study.

Muhammad Tahir Latif: Helped in economic analysis.

Tahira Tabassum: Helped in data analysis and revision.

Naeem Faisal: Helped in review.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

References

Chen, S., M. Yin, X. Zheng, S. Liu, G. Chu, C. Xu, D. Wang and X. Zhang. 2019. Effect of dense planting of hybrid rice on grain yield and solar radiation use in southeastern China. Agron. J., 111(3): 1229-1238. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2018.07.0430

CIMMYT, 1988. From agronomic data to farmers recommendations: An economics training manual. Completely revised edition. Mexico DF.

Deng, C., X. Teng, X. Peng and B. Zhang. 2014. Effects of simulated puddling intensity and pre-drying on shrinkage capacity of a paddy soil under long-term fertilization. Soil Till. Res. 140: 135-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2014.02.012

Dongarwar, U.R., N. Patke, L.N. Dongarwar and S.R. Kashiwar. 2018. Impact of different
seed rates on yield and economics of direct seeded rice in eastern Vidharbha zone of
Maharashtra. Ind. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 7: 32-42.

Dou, Z., Y. Li, H. Guo, L. Chen, J. Jiang, Y. Zhou, Q. Xu, Z. Xing, H. Gao and H. Zhang. 2021. Effects of mechanically transplanting methods and planting densities on yield and quality of Nanjing 2728 under rice-crayfish continuous production system. Agron., 11(3): 488. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030488

Fang, H., H. Rong, P.D. Hallett, S.J. Mooney, W. Zhang, H. Zhou and X. Peng. 2019. Impact of soil puddling intensity on the root system architecture of rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedlings. Soil Tillage Res., 193: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.05.022

Farooq, M., S.M.A. Basra and N. Ahmad. 2007. Improving the performance of transplanted rice by seed priming. Plant Growth Regul., 51: 129-137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-006-9155-x

He, H., C. You, H. Wu, D. Zhu, R. Yang, Q. He, L. Xu, W. Gui and L. Wu. 2018. Effects of nursery tray and transplanting methods on rice yield. Agron. J., 110(1): 104-114. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2017.06.0334

Hossain, K., J. Timsina, D.E. Johnson, M.K. Gathala and T.J. Krupnik. 2020. Multi-year weed community dynamics and rice yields as influenced by tillage, crop establishment, and weed control: Implications for rice-maize rotations in the eastern Gangetic plains. Crop Protect., 138: 105334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2020.105334

Huang, M., C. Yang, Q. Ji, L. Jiang, J. Tan and Y. Li. 2013. Tillering responses of rice to plant density and nitrogen rate in a subtropical environment of southern China. Field Crops Res., 149: 187-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2013.04.029

Huo, Z., H. Wei, H. Zhang, Z. Gong and K. Xu. 2012. Effect of panicle nitrogen fertilizer management on yield and population quality in mechanical transplanted super rice Ningjing 1 with different seedling ages. Acta Agron. Sin., 38(8): 1460-1470. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1006.2012.01460

Kewat, M.L., S.B. Agrawal, K.K. Agrawal and R.S. Sharma. 2002. Effect of divergent plant spacings and age of seedlings on yield and economics of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa). Ind. J. Agron., 47(3): 367-371. https://doi.org/10.59797/ija.v47i3.3174

Kirchhof, G., S. Priyono, W.H. Utomo, T. Adisarwanto, E.V. Dacanay and H.B. So. 2000. The effect of soil puddling on the soil physical properties and the growth of rice and post-rice crops. Soil Till. Res., 56(1-2): 37-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(00)00121-5

Kirchhof, G., T.P. Tuong, H.B. So. 2011. Puddling: Effect on soil physical properties and crops. In: Gliński, J., J. Horabik, J. Lipiec (eds). Encyclopedia of agrophysics. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3585-1_129

Lee, H., W. Hwang, J. Jeong, S. Yang, N. Jeong, C. Lee and M. Choi. 2021. Physiological causes of transplantation shock on rice growth inhibition and delayed heading. Sci. Rep., 11: 16818. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96009-z

Li, Y.X., L. Yang, Y.H. Wang, Y.F. Ding, S.H. Wang, Z.H. Liu and G.H. Li. 2020. Effects of seedling age on the growth stage and yield formation of hydroponically grown long-mat rice seedlings. J. Integrat. Agric., 19(7): 1755-1767. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62756-5

Lima, A.C.R., W.B. Hoogmoed, E.A. Pauletto and L.F.S. Pinto. 2009. Management systems in irrigated rice affect physical and chemical soil properties. Soil Till. Res., 103(1): 92-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2008.09.011

Liu, Q., X. Wu, J. Ma, B. Chen and C. Xin. 2015. Effects of delaying transplanting on agronomic traits and grain yield of rice under mechanical transplantation pattern. PLoS One, 10(4): e0123330. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123330

Liu, Q., X. Zhou, J. Li and C. Xin. 2017. Effects of seedling age and cultivation density on agronomic characteristics and grain yield of mechanically transplanted rice. Sci. Rep., 7(1): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14672-7

Malik, R.K., B.R. Kamboj, M.L. Jat, H.S. Sidhu, A. Bana, V. Singh, Y.S. Saharawat, A. Pundir, R.D. Sahnawaz, T. Anuradha, N. Kumaran and R. Gupta. 2011. No-till and unpuddled mechanical transplanting of rice. Operational Manual, Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia, New Delhi, India.

Mamun, M.R.A., M.A. Islam, A.K. Lucky and M.A. Hossen. 2020. Identification of puddling settling period of various soil texture for mechanical rice transplanting. Agric. Eng. Int. CIGR J., 22(4): 40-47.

Mann, R.A. and M. Ashraf. 2001. Improvement of basmati and its production practices in Pakistan. In: Specialty rice of the world: Breeding, production and marketing. Chaudhary, R.C., D.V. Tran and R. Duffy (eds.). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. pp. 129-148.

Nazir, A., M.A. Bhat, T.A. Bhat, S. Fayaz, M.S. Mir, U. Basu, S.A. Ahanger, S. Altaf, B. Jan, B.A. Lone and M. Mushtaq. 2022. Comparative analysis of rice and weeds and their nutrient partitioning under various establishment methods and weed management practices in temperate environment. Agron. 12(4): 816. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12040816

Pasuquin, E., T. Lafarge and B. Tubana. 2008. Transplanting young seedlings in irrigated rice fields: early and high tiller production enhanced grain yield. Field Crops Res., 105(1-2): 141-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2007.09.001

Paul, S., M.A. Hossen, B.C. Nath, M.A. Rahman and S. Hosen. 2016. Effect of soil settling period on performance of rice transplanter. Int. J. Sustain. Agric. Tech., 12: 14-20.

Rani, T.S. and K. Jayakiran. 2010. Evaluation of different planting techniques for economic feasibility in rice. Elect. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem., 9: 150-153.

Rashid, M.H., P.C. Goswami, M.F. Hossain, D. Mahalder, M.K.I. Rony, B.J. Shirazy and T.D. Russell. 2018. Mechanised non-puddled transplanting of boro rice following mustard conserves resources and enhances productivity. Field Crops Res., 225: 83-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2018.06.006

Rezaei, M., R. Tabatabaekoloor, S.R.M. Seyedi and N.A. Nategh. 2012. Effects of puddling intensity on the in-situ engineering properties of paddy field soil. Aust. J. Agric. Eng., 3(1): 22-26.

Shen, J.H., W.J. Shao and Z.J. Zhang. 2006. Effects of sowing density, fertilizer amount in seedbed and seedling age on seedling quality and grain yield in paddy field for mechanical transplanting rice. Acta. Agron. Sin., 32(3): 402-409.

Shinde, G.J., V.S. Pandit and J.S. Kadam. 2018. Review paper on development of rice transplanter. Iconic Res. Engineer. J., 2: 63-65.

Steel, R.G.D., J.H. Torrie and D.A. Dickey. 1997. Principles and Procedures of Statistics: A Biometrical Approach. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc. New York. pp. 400-428.

Thomas, E.V., 2002. Development of a mechanism for transplanting rice seedlings. Mech. Mach. Theory, 37: 395-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00071-4

Uzoegbo, H.C., 2016. Dry-stack and compressed stabilized earth-block construction. In: Nonconventional and Vernacular Construction Materials. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 305-350. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102704-2.00012-3

Virk, A.L., M.S. Farooq, A. Ahmad, T. Khaliq, M.I.A. Rehmani, F.U. Haider and I. Ejaz. 2020. Effect of seedling age on growth and yield of fine rice cultivars under alternate wetting and drying system. J. Plant Nutr., 44(1): 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2020.1812642

Wassmann, R., H.U. Neue, J.K. Ladha and M.S. Aulakh. 2004. Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from rice-wheat cropping systems in Asia Environment. Sustain. Dev., 6: 65-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3604-6_4

Yu, L.H., Y.F. Ding, Y.F. Xue, Q.H. Ling and Z.H. Yuan. 2006. Factors affecting rice seedling quality of mechanical transplanting rice. Transact. CSAE, 22: 73-78.

Zhang, Z.B., H. Zhou, H. Lin and X.H. Peng. 2016. Puddling intensity, sesquioxides, and soil organic carbon impacts on crack patterns of two paddy soils. Geoderma, 262: 155-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.08.030

Zhang, Z.J., J. Wang, Y.Z. Lang, L.H. Yu, Y.F. Xue and Q.S. Zhu. 2008. Growing characteristics of rice seedlings of over-optimum age for mechanical transplanting. Acta Agron. Sin., 34(2): 297-304. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1006.2008.00297

Zohaib, A., M. Hussain, I. Ahmad and A. Bashir. 2022. Effect of seeding rate for mat type nursery on growth, yield and economic efficacy of mechanically transplanted fine basmati rice. Pak. J. Agric. Res., 35(1): 21-28. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjar/2022/35.1.21.28