Physicochemical and Mineral Content of Milk from Talesh Buffalos, Sheep, Goats, and Cows, Saanen Goats and Talesh-Mediterranean Buffalos: A Comparative Analysis

Luigi Liotta1, Vincenzo Lopreiato1, Fariborz Asroosh2 and Alireza Seidavi2*

1Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinaire, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

2Department of Animal Science, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran

ABSTRACT

The aim of the present study was to compare quality, macro, and micro constituents of milk between Talesh buffalo, Talesh sheep, Talesh cow, Talesh-Mediterranean buffalo, Talesh goat and Saanen goat. Milk samples were collected during 2021. The main characteristics and constituents of milk including colour, odour, taste, freezing point, dry matter free of fat, acidity (lactic acid), density (in 15 °C), pH, fat and protein were determined according to the standard methods. Macro and micro elements of milk were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Data were subjected to the two-way ANOVA analysis to determine the significant differences between species/breeds. The acidity, density and fat in Talesh sheep’s milk was higher than milk from other species/breeds (P<0.01). Also, the amount of protein in Talesh sheep’s milk was significantly higher (P<0.05) than all animals tested with the exception of Talesh buffalo milk. The pH of Saanen goat’s milk was higher than the pH of milk from all other species/breeds (P<0.01), whereas the pH of milk from Talesh-Mediterranean buffalos was lowest (P<0.01). Talesh sheep’s milk had the lowest freezing temperature (P<0.01). The results of the present study also demonstrated significant differences among species for most macro and micro elements including Al, Ba, Ca, Co, Cs, Fe, In, La, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, Pd, Pt, Re, Rn, S, Sc, Sr, Se, Ta, B, Li, and Zn (P<0.01). Significant differences were observed for As, Ce, He, Ir, Nb, Sb and Th in sheep’s milk (P<0.05), and K and Rb (P<0.05) in Talesh goat’s milk compared with other species/breeds. In conclusion, buffalo milk is richer in most nutrients compared with cow’s and goat’s milk and should perhaps be considered a stronger candidate to meet human nutritional needs in regions of the world where they can be properly managed.

Article Information

Received 21 January 2022

Revised 25 February 2022

Accepted 15 March 2022

Available online 15 June 2022

(early access)

Published 12 June 2023

Authors’ Contribution

LL, AS, VL and FA performed the experiments. LL and AS drafted the manuscript. LL, AS and FA analysed the data. LL, AS and VL designed the experiments and revised the manuscript. LL, AS and VL conceived the idea.

Key words

Physicochemical composition, Macro and micro trace element, Milk, Ruminant, Breed

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20220121140148

* Corresponding author: alirezaseidavi@iaurasht.ac.ir

0030-9923/2023/0004-1683 $ 9.00/0

Copyright 2023 by the authors. Licensee Zoological Society of Pakistan.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

Milk is the most nutritionally complete food that can be utilized by humans. For this reason, one of the main livestock activities in the world is raising dairy cattle. Milk comprises a complex compound that contains fats, proteins, lactose (and other sugars), minerals, vitamins, enzymes and water, as well as less-defined but nonetheless important active constituents (Piacenza et al., 2021). Dairy products are the best source of calcium for the human body (Polzonetti et al., 2020). Consumption of milk and its various products, especially fermented products, leads to increased life expectancy, increased physical and mental efficiency, reduced infectious diseases, reduced bone diseases and optimal growth of children and adolescents (Tripathi et al., 2019).

Due to the growing awareness of consumers about the relationship between diet and human health, food quality especially livestock products has become an important issue in food selection. Therefore, the consumption of foods that have beneficial effects on human health (useful foods) is increasing due to their high nutritional value. On the other hand, these foods should have a clear effect on health, or reduce serious diseases in humans. Milk is an example of one of these foods (Schröder and Vetter, 2013). Therefore, milk can be a very important food for human beings and contains almost all required nutrients (Ziarati et al., 2018). Milk and its products have been among the most important nutrients for human needs for thousands of years, which in addition to having great nutritional value, also play an important role in preventing many diseases. Numerous studies have shown the positive effect of milk and its products on human health and longevity (Ekmekcioglu, 2020). Milk and its products are a rich source of many nutrients such as protein, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin B2 and vitamin B12, which are recommended for daily human consumption. Milk provides the calcium needed to have strong bones, the protein needed for brain growth and body tissue growth, the vitamin A needed for normal vision, and the vitamin D needed to absorb calcium (Wimalawansa et al., 2018).

Daily consumption of milk in the household can, nonetheless, be very important to overall human health. Milk consumed by households globally, and in Iran specifically is generally provided by cows, followed by buffaloes and goats. Buffalo milk has a high nutritional value after sheep milk due to its high content of solids (fat, protein, carbohydrates, calcium, phosphorus and vitamin A). Thus, multiple aspects of nutritional value in buffalo milk increases the quality and health value of buffalo dairy products (Garau et al., 2021).

In Iran, about 89% of the total milk production of the country is obtained from cows. Sheep and goat milk provided 7 and 3% respectively with the remainder including buffalo and camel milk (Statistics Center of Iran, 2012). Dairy processing supplies dairy producers with more cash than raw milk sales and offers better opportunities to reach local and urban markets. Milk processing also provides the opportunity to cope with seasonal fluctuations in milk supply. Converting raw milk to processed milk and other products can benefit all communities by creating off-farm jobs in milk collection, transportation, processing and marketing (FAO, 2019).

Approximately 150 million households worldwide produce milk. In the last three decades, world milk production has grown by more than 50%. Among lactating animals, cows have the largest share of milk production in the world with 83%, the rest of the milk production is related to buffalo, sheep, goats, and other animals (Adesogan and Dahl, 2020).

The main constituents of milk are water, fat, lactose, whey proteins and minerals (ash). The composition of milk is very variable and. In addition, genetic, physiological, and nutritional factors, as well as environmental conditions, play a large role in creating these differences. Fat is the most variable component of milk, which varies even throughout the day and depends on the individual characteristics of the animals (Pietrzak-Fiećko and Kamelska-Sadowska, 2020).

Research findings indicate that mineral and trace element content in milk varies depending on species and breeds, lactation number, nutritional status, mineral supplements, geographical conditions, and environmental chemical contaminants (Park et al., 2017).

Some species are targeted for milk production, including cattle, goats, sheep, buffalo, and camels. Milk nutrients of interest are water/ solids, protein, fat, sugars, ash (minerals). Hence, our aim was to investigate breed and species differences in milk quality and mineral constituents from animals sampled from the same general location.

Materials and Methods

Milk samples collection

Milk samples were collected in 2021from six species/breeds in Talesh, Ardeh, Dinachal and Khaleh Sara summer villages of Guilan province, Iran. All herds were maintained in semi-open grazing systems with animals fed on natural pastures supplemented with concentrate/hay diets. Milk samples were stored at -18°C until prepared for analysis.

Milk samples analysis

Colour, odour, taste, freezing point, dry matter free of fat, acidity (lactic acid), density (at 15°C), fat and protein were determined according to standard methods (AOAC, 1990). The pH was measured with a digital pH meter (microprocessor pH meter, Cyberscan, Italy 510 pH) calibrated with 4 and 8.6 buffers.

Milk samples were prepared and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS, 7500 Series, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) at the Aria Sharif Chemical Laboratory (Karaj, Iran). Briefly, 6 g samples of homogenous thawed milk samples were immersed in a 2:1 (v/v) mixture of 65% nitric acid (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) at 70°C to totally dissolve the spines. The obtained solution was then mixed with distilled water in a sampling vial to a volume of 50 mL. ICP-MS was used to measure milk Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, Ho, In, Ir, K, La, Li, Lu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, P, Pb, Pd, Pr, Pt, Re, Rh, Ru, Rb, S, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Ta, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, V, W, Y, Yb, Zn and Zr. A multi-element standard (1094870100SKU, Merck) was used for instrument calibration every five samples. The operational conditions for the ICP-MS were optimized following the manufacturer’s instructions (RF power 1,500 W, nebulizer gas flow rate 0.6 L min−1, plasma gas flow rate 12 L min−1, auxiliary gas flow rate 1 L min−1, integration time 6 s).

Statistical analysis

All data were examined for normality and homogeneity of variances before running the statistical analyses and transformed if necessary. The statistical analysis was performed using the two-way ANOVA (Zar, 1996) based on a completely randomized design. The statistical design was as Xij = μ + Tj + eij where Xij shows number of each control in experiment, μ was total average of society that was considered zero through samples, Tj shows effects of each group of experimental treatment and eij shows the effect of the error. The total value of any observed treatment effects, and the average test error was the result of the whole population. All statistical analyses were performed with the SPSS (1996) software package and differences of P<0.05 were considered significant.

RESULTS

The color, odour and taste of all milk samples was normal. The results of this study are presented in Tables I-IV. The percentage of defatted solids, acidity, density and fat of Talesh sheep’s milk was higher than the milk of other species (P<0.01). The protein concentration in Talesh sheep’s milk was higher than the milk from other species, except from Talesh buffalo milk (P<0.05). The pH of Saanen goat’s milk was higher than milk from other species, whereas the pH of sheep, goat and buffalo milk samples were higher than Mediterranean buffalo milk (P<0.01). Talesh sheep’s milk had the lowest freezing temperature (P<0.01).

 

Table I. Physico-chemical characteristics of first lactation milks from different ruminant species/breeds sampled in Iran (wet basis).

Ruminants	pH	Freezing point (°C)	Acidity (Lactic acid) (%)	Density (in 15°C)
Talesh buffalo	6.78pb	-0.59b	0.18bc	1.03bc
Talesh-Mediterranean buffalo	6.13d	-0.58ab	0.27a	1.03bc
Talesh sheep	6.69b	-0.68c	0.28a	1.04a
Saanen goat	6.91a	-0.57a	0.15c	1.03bc
Talesh goat	6.71b	-0.59b	0.19bc	1.03b
talesh cow	6.51c	-0.58ab	0.23ab	1.03c
SEM	0.23	0.003	0.013	0.000
P-value	<0.0001	<0.0001	<0.0001	<0.0001

 

Means within a column with different letters are different (P<0.05).

 

This study showed that there were significant differences in macro and micro elements of milk from the different species. Sheep milk had the highest content of the elements Al, Ba, Ca, Co, Fe, In, La, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, Pd, Pt, S, Sc, Sr and Ta (P<0.01). However, Saanen goat milk had the highest level of B, Li and Re and Talesh buffalo milk had the highest level of Cs, Se and Zn (P<0.01).

 

Table II. Milk nutrient composition in different species/breeds of ruminants sampled in Iran (wet basis).

Ruminants	Dry matter free of fat (%)	Fat (%)	Protein (%)
Talesh buffalo	9.19b	5.8b	4.6a
Talesh-Mediterranean buffalo	8.91c	5.27c	3.20b
Talesh sheep	12.80a	9.77a	4.60a
Saanen goat	8.68d	3.57f	4.17ab
Talesh goat	9.00bc	4.63d	3.80ab
Talesh cow	8.92c	4.07e	3.33ab
SEM	0.047	0.033	0.286
P-value	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.014

 

Means within a column with different letters are different (P<0.05).

 

Finally, a significant difference was observed in macro and micro elements of sheep milk As, Ce, He, Ir, Nb, Sb and Th (P<0.05). Although Talesh goat milk had the highest level in terms of element K, but with the amount of K milk of Talesh sheep, cows and buffaloes and Saanen goat was in the same level and there was a significant difference with the amount of K milk of Mediterranean buffalo (P<0.05). Also, Talesh goat milk had the highest amount of Rb trace element, but with Rb value of Talesh cow and buffalo milk, Mediterranean buffalo and Saanen goat were on a statistical level and there was a statistically significant difference with Rb value of sheep milk.

DISCUSSION

Buffalo milk has many advantages in terms of nutritional quality and chemical composition and is characterized by the content of fat, total solids, proteins, caseins, lactose and ash compared to cow’s milk (Bekere and Husen, 2020). In fact, various factors such as species, breed, nutritional system, lactation stage and season affect the chemical composition and nutritional qualities (Ahmad et al., 2013). However, cow’s milk has long been considered a very nutritious and valuable food for humans and is consumed in millions of dairy products (Mahmoud and Sumayra, 2010).

Salman et al. (2014) examined the difference between cow’s milk and buffalo milk in a study. The researchers said that the protein content of buffalo milk was significantly higher than cow’s milk. The protein content of Talesh buffalo milk and Talesh cow’s milk observed in the present study was consistent with the findings of Salman et al. (2014). Mahmoud and Sumayra (2010) reported more protein in buffalo milk than in cow’s milk. However, the results reported by Enb et al. (2009) did not support

 

Table III. Milk macro-mineral (ppm) composition in different species/breeds of ruminants sampled in Iran (wet basis).

Macro-minerals (ppm)	Talesh buffalo	Talesh-Mediterranean buffalo	Talesh sheep	Saanen goat	Talesh goat	talesh cow	SEM	P-value
Ca	1041.56b	744.24bc	1541.25a	518.18c	1003.48b	684.87bc	96.35	<0.0001
P	503.65bc	408.68cd	879.26a	360.11d	602.43b	443.42cd	24.44	<0.0001
Na	289.50b	284.96bc	475.23a	226.62d	233.30cd	188.87d	11.69	<0.0001
K	776.20ab	549.43b	746.10ab	852.55ab	1090.10a	762.99ab	87.90	0.023
Mg	93.84ab	55.68b	139.91a	68.10b	84.45b	56.73b	10.24	0.001
S	257.14b	164.59b	472.37a	135.69b	227.56b	154.67b	27.62	<0.0001

 

Means within a row with different letters are different (P<0.05).

 

Table IV. Milk trace mineral composition in different species/breeds of ruminants sampled in Iran (wet basis).

Trace mineral (ppb)	Talesh buffalo	Talesh-Mediterranean buffalo	Talesh sheep	Saanen goat	Talesh goat	Talesh cow	SEM	P-value
Cu	97.88a	172.10a	30.49a	71.11a	47.63a	56.32a	68.60	0.736
Fe	921.67b	890.00b	1350.00a	930.00b	820.00b	890.00b	73.34	0.003
Mn	66.47b	67.03b	89.67a	54.38bc	62.96b	40.89c	4.54	<0.0001
Pb	6.42a	17.50a	8.65a	11.25a	12.52a	7.56a	4.19	0.492
Zn	4029.01a	2300.89ab	3149.64ab	813.44b	2706.16ab	2422.64ab	422.36	0.004
Se	247.88a	44.03c	54.01bc	18.65c	27.33c	241.86ab	40.51	0.003
Ag	0.61a	1.39a	10.00a	5.74a	6.79a	1.59a	3.22	0.307
Al	204.86b	300.37ab	440.73a	302.63ab	260.78b	253.33b	34.31	0.007
As	3.93ab	1.06b	11.49a	2.89ab	2.78ab	0.92b	1.92	0.02
B	410.33c	390.00c	590.00b	680.00a	510.00b	410.00c	17.71	<0.0001
Ba	260.67ab	100.00b	430.00a	90.00b	240.00ab	110.00b	51.91	0.004
Be	0.36a	0.10a	0.10a	0.07a	0.10a	0.29a	0.107	0.306
Bi	0.58a	1.83a	2.71a	1.11a	0.82a	0.53a	0.66	0.211
Cd	0.221	0.199a	0.29a	0.18a	0.11a	0.18a	0.06	0.37
Ce	0.10b	0.23b	0.82a	0.46ab	0.17b	0.24b	0.12	0.012
Co	0.88b	0.83b	2.43a	0.68b	1.53ab	0.83b	0.28	0.005
Cr	10.44a	3.97a	6.37a	5.51a	5.53a	4.22a	3.17	0.737
Cs	1.46a	0.61ab	0.49ab	0.31c	0.74b	0.38ab	0.09	<0.0001
Dy	0.10a	0.08a	0.14a	0.099a	0.07a	0.09a	0.02	0.163
Er	0.10a	0.10a	0.08a	0.09a	0.10a	0.09a	0.01	0.761
Eu	0.10a	0.10a	0.11a	0.09a	0.10a	0.09a	0.01	0.954
Ga	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Gd	0.09a	0.09a	0.13a	0.11a	0.09a	0.08a	0.02	0.608
Ge	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Hf	0.19a	0.17a	1.37a	0.30a	0.27a	0.16a	0.27	0.049
Hg	9.18a	6.05a	15.96a	9.26a	13.46a	5.74a	3.14	0.215
Ho	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
					Table continueS on next page...................
Trace mineral (ppb)	Talesh buffalo	Talesh-Mediterranean buffalo	Talesh sheep	Saanen goat	Talesh goat	Talesh cow	SEM	P-value
In	0.10b	0.08b	0.43a	0.17b	0.13b	0.13b	0.05	0.002
Ir	0.51b	0.73ab	1.65a	0.999ab	0.55ab	0.63ab	0.24	0.041
La	0.10c	0.14c	0.73a	0.53ab	0.19bc	0.15bc	0.08	<0.0001
Li	6.73ab	1.67b	0.10b	20.82a	0.10b	1.134b	3.26	0.005
Lu	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Mo	27.75bc	34.59b	58.16a	11.96cd	6.87d	28.26bc	3.74	<0.0001
Nb	2.48ab	1.52b	16.08a	3.05ab	2.52ab	1.76b	3	0.033
Nd	0.16a	0.23a	0.55a	0.30a	0.29a	0.23a	1	0.188
Ni	9.78a	1.45a	24.27a	7.86a	36.15a	1.14a	9.64	0.137
Pd	0.09b	0.10b	0.39a	0.14b	0.11b	0.07b	0.04	0.002
Pr	0.14a	0.14a	0.23a	0.19a	0.11a	0.17a	0.02	0.115
Pt	0.10b	0.10b	0.54a	0.24b	0.14b	0.100b	0.06	0.001
Re	0.14c	0.10c	0.55b	1.05a	0.10c	0.10c	0.03	<0.0001
Rh	0.09b	0.08b	0.33a	0.20ab	0.14b	0.11b	0.03	0.001
Ru	0.10a	0.12a	0.09a	0.09a	0.09a	0.10a	0.01	0.422
Rb	737.77ab	596.02ab	274.37b	519.48ab	961.69a	422.08ab	121.25	0.023
Sb	0.74ab	0.61b	1.19a	0.79ab	0.73ab	0.63b	0.09	0.012
Sc	4.98b	4.34bc	6.63a	3.34c	5.00b	4.35bc	0.23	<0.0001
Sm	0.09a	0.10a	0.18a	0.15a	0.09a	0.13a	0.03	0.23
Sn	27.38a	4.79a	18.04a	6.98a	8.03a	5.84a	8.91	0.45
Sr	290.40c	570.00bc	990.00a	640.00b	480.00bc	300.00c	64.14	<0.0001
Ta	6.88b	4.38b	24.560a	6.16b	5.64b	4.17b	3.40	0.008
Tb	0.10a	0.10a	0.09a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.00	0.458
Te	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Th	1.76b	1.75b	5.21a	2.28b	2.13b	1.75b	0.61	0.011
Ti	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Tl	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Tm	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
U	1.42a	1.25a	1.24a	1.33a	1.18a	1.43a	0.08	0.188
V	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
W	5.26a	2.07a	8.23a	2.92a	2.39a	2.58a	1.89	0.231
Y	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Yb	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0.10a	0	1
Zr	3.53a	2.22a	3.29a	2.30a	2.17a	2.34a	0.90	0.467

 

Means within a row with different letters are different (P<0.05).

 

the present findings and found less protein in buffalo and cow’s milk. The higher protein content of buffalo milk than cow’s milk may be due to the concentration of both casein and whey proteins, which has been reported to be higher in buffalo milk than in cow’s milk (Sindhu, 1998). In general, species diversity in milk protein content may be due to changes in the genetic composition of the animal (Walstra et al., 2006). In fact, it can be said that animals that grow faster (according to their size) need milk with more protein, because it provides the necessary materials for the growth of muscle tissue (Park et al., 2017).

Milk is almost an ideal food with high nutritional value. It contains proteins for body growth, minerals that make up bone and lactose and fat for energy. In addition to providing essential fatty acids, it contains nutrients in a digestible and absorbable form. Recently, the use of colostrum and adult milk derived from various mammals in human nutrition has become increasingly popular. This is mainly due to hypocholesterolemic function, better bioavailability, therapeutic properties (used in gastrointestinal disorders) and no allergies after consuming milk. Milk fat is also one of the few food sources of butyric acid and a strong inhibitor of cancer cell proliferation (Salman et al., 2014). The mineral composition of cow’s milk is 0.73 mg/l (Flynn, 1992), of which manganese is 2.89 (Belewu and Aiyegbusi, 2002), molybdenum is 0.05 (Park et al., 2017), iron is 0.81 (Anderson. 1992). Copper was 0.03 μmol/L (Licata et al., 2004), calcium was 0.58% (Hurley, 1997), and magnesium was 87 μg/ml (Fransson and Linnerdal, 1993) as 87 μg/ml (Fransson and Linnerdal, 1993).

The average lactose content in buffalo milk was relatively higher than cow’s milk. Similar findings have been reported by Park et al. (2017), who found a higher percentage of lactose in buffalo milk than in cow’s milk. The present observations are consistent with the findings of Mahmoud and Sumayra (2010), who found a similar trend for lactose content in buffalo and cow’s milk. However, the results of Bzoska et al. (2011) do not support the findings of the present study, which did not show a comparable difference between the lactose concentrations of buffalo and bovine milk. In addition, the results of the present study are not in agreement with the findings of Myburgh et al. (2012).

The use of milk and dairy products in any local area mainly follows economic factors and climatic conditions, food habits, peoples’ food tastes and the level of technology. The biological value of the proteins in milk is equal to the percentage of nitrogen absorbed, which is maintained in the body to ensure growth and survival. Milk protein contains 80% casein, 20% soluble protein. The milk composition varies not only from one species to another but also in different breeds, while environmental factors (age, season, nutrition, health, and lactation (stage and parity) in turn cause changes in milk composition (Getaneh et al., 2016).

Buffalo milk has ~5% less water than cow’s milk, thus its dry matter, protein, fat and carbohydrates are correspondingly higher than cow’s milk (Foroutan et al., 2019). The main factor in determining the energy of milk is primarily its fat content. Buffalo milk contains 97 kcal and cow’s milk has 60 kcal per 100 ml. Contrary to the misconceptions and opinions of a group of people, no credible scientific source has so far banned or restricted the consumption of buffalo milk.

Sheep and buffalo milk were higher in quality compared with goat, and cow’s milk. We suggest that a larger emphasis on sheep and buffalo milk may result in human health benefits. In general, the amount of solids in buffalo milk is about 5% more than cow’s milk, which is consistent with the results of this study, so that after Talesh sheep, the amounts of lean solids, fat and protein in Talesh buffalo milk had the highest average.

The total amount of minerals in buffalo milk is more than cow’s milk. On average, buffalo milk contains higher percentages of calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, manganese, iron and copper than cow’s milk (Singh et al., 2019) which was consistent with the results of the present study. However, it has been previously reported a lower amount of zinc in buffalo milk compared with cow’s milk, resulting in contrast with the results of the present study, so that the amount of zinc had the highest level among the milk of other species.

The worldwide production of goat’s milk is the third highest after cow and buffalo. A female goat of high-breed breeds gives an average of 3.8 liters of milk per day. Goat’s milk is similar to cow’s milk but differs from buffalo (and sheep) milk in taste, composition, type and amount of nutrients. Goat’s milk fat particles are smaller in size as well as quantity compared with buffalo milk, so goat’s milk is easier to digest and is better for children, the elderly and those with digestive disorders (Panta et al., 2021). Perhaps one of the best benefits of goat’s milk is that people who do not tolerate cow’s milk can consume goat’s milk with fewer problems (Verruck et al., 2019). Some anti-inflammatory compounds (such as polysaccharides) in goat’s milk make it easier to digest. In general, buffalo milk solids are about 4% higher than in goat’s milk, and buffalo milk is richer in protein, carbohydrates and especially fat than goat’s milk. The amount of energy in 100 ml of buffalo milk is 97 kcal, but this amount is 69 kcal in goat milk. Although the total amount of minerals in buffalo milk is less than in goat’s milk, the concentrations of Ca, Na, Mn and Cu in Iranian cow’s and goat’s milk is quite similar. Furthermore, the reported higher concentrations of P, Mg and Fe, and lower K and Zn in buffalo milk compared with goat’s milk (Chen et al., 2020) is confirmed from Iranian animals raised in the same environment in this study. So, buffalo milk is richer in most nutrients compared with cow’s milk and goat’s milk and should perhaps be considered a stronger candidate for improving health status or meeting human nutritional needs in regions of the world where they can be properly managed.

CONCLUSION

Buffalo milk is richer than cow’s and goat’s milk in terms of total solids, fat, protein, carbohydrates, calculated energy, Ca, P, Na, Mg and Fe. Goat’s milk is also richer in potassium than bovid or sheep’s milk, even among the herds sampled from the same environments in Iran.

Acknowledgements

Financial support by the Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, grant number [17.16.1.462] is gratefully acknowledged. The research study proposed was conducted under the grant of the RSF No. 21-16-00025, SSI NIIMMP.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Statement of conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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