Review Article

Pesticides Uses, Impacts on Environment and their Possible Remediation Strategies- A Review

Khaliq Dad1, Fenliang Zhao2, Rumsha Hassan3, Kainat Javed3, Humaira Nawaz4, Muhammad Usman Saleem5, Tahreem Fatima6 and Muhamad Nawaz3*

1Government Associate Degree College for Boys, Shah Sadar Din, D.G. Khan Punjab, Pakistan; 2Institute of Environmental and Plant Protection, Chinese Acedemy of Tropical Agricultural Science, Haikou, Hainan, China; 3Department of Environmental Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan; 4College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan; 5Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Veternary Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan; 6Government Degree College for Women, D.G. Khan, Pakistan.

Received | July 26, 2021; Accepted | June 27, 2022; Published | June 28, 2022

*Correspondence | Muhamad Nawaz, Department of Environmental Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan; Email: mnawaz@bzu.edu.pk

Citation | Dad, K., F. Zhao, R. Hassan, K. Javed, H. Nawaz, M.U. Saleem, T. Fatima and M. Nawaz. 2022. Pesticides uses, impacts on environment and their possible remediation strategies. A review. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 35(2): 274-284.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjar/2022/35.2.274.284

Keywords | Environmental impacts, Human health, Pesticides, Remediation techniques, Sources of pesticides

Copyright: 2022 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Pesticides are the chemical substances which are used to kill harmful or which can damage the living organisms (Mathews, 2006). Pesticides have been put in to diferent classes based on their uses and handling e.g. bactericides, algicides, herbicides, fungicides, nematicides, insecticides, and rodenticides, while those having carbon rings are organophosphorus, carbamates, organochlorine, acetamides, Triazines and triazoles, pyrethroids and neonicotinoids (Tarla et al., 2020). During the period of green revolution in Pakistan, major focus was also to produce the harmless pesticides in order to control the widespread variety of insects and herbal pests which can deteriorate the quality and quantity of global food stuffs (Hassaan and El-Nemr, 2020; Gunstone et al., 2021). Among the pesticides, about 85% production of pesticides is consumed in agriculture sector while rest of pesticides are consumed for the public health activities e.g. for controlling vector-borne diseases, unwanted or extra plants while in industries to control insects, fungi, bacteria, pest’s algae in electrical appliances, daily used equipment and food packaging (Gilden et al., 2010). It has been estimated that about 5.6 billion pounds of pesticides are being utilized worldwide annually which is also increasing unexpectedly (Alavanja, 2009). The estimated amount of pesticides being used globally is approximately 45% in Europe, 25% in USA and 25% in rest of the world (Bourguet and Guillemaud, 2016) in which China and USA are the top while Pakistan has been ranked at the second position in Soth Asian (Yadav et al., 2015; Waheed et al., 2017).

A variety of compounds are present in pesticides which are used for different agricultural practices including, herbicides, nematicides, molluscidies, rodenticides, insecticides, fungicides and various plant growth regulators. Pesticides have a wide range of uses, sources and toxic nature depending upon the purpose of use and synthesis (Bashir et al., 2018) and due to these reasons; pesticides have high global concerns (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011) because harvesters and neighborhood of the cultivated areas are exposed directly or indirectly to the pesticides during treatment, cleaning and storage of agriculture products (Hutter et al., 2021). Even a good pesticide is not only harmful for the plants and animals in the ecosystem but also causes the damage to the targeted specimen organisms for which being used (Arias-Estevez et al., 2008). Unfortunately, many new and powerful pesticides are being formulated to combat the increasing food demand (Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2013) because without usage of pesticides, vegetables, fruits and cereals are attacked by pests and relevant diseases causing losses of quantity as well as quality of food stuff. However many authors e.g. (Oliveira et al., 2021; Riedo et al., 2021; Trudi et al., 2021) have reported several adverse impacts on plants, animals and ecosystem due to their usage.

Types of pesticides in use

According to Gracia (2012) pesticides are categorized in to diverse groups based on ther chemistry, modes of action, functional groups and toxicity levels. Mostly pesticides are categorized in to fungicides, herbicides, insecticides and rodenticides based on their nature of use (Amaral, 2014; Mnif et al., 2011). Group of pesticides based on chemical classes, are categorized into inorganic and organic components. Inorganic pesticides contain copper sulfate, copper, ferrous sulfate, sulfur and lime while organic pesticides are more complex having severe chronic effects (Kim et al., 2017). Organic pesticides can be categorized further rendering to their chemical structure, such as chlorohydrocarbon insecticides, carbamate insecticides, organophosphorus insecticides, metabolite, synthetic pyrethroid insecticides, synthetic urea, herbicides, benzimidazole nematocides, triazine herbicides, metal phosphide and rodenticides (Zhang et al., 2018).

Overall the use of pesticide is expected to cross about 4 million tons/year (FAOSTAT, 2010) because their supply all over the world is very rough and unchecked (Pimentel, 1996). It has been observed that European countries are utilizing one third of pesticide while a quarter of total pesticide is utilized by North America. Herbicides accounts for approximately half of the total pesticides utilized in North America including fungicides 13%, insecticides 19% and the remaining 22% contains diversity of other materials (Gianessi and Silvers, 1992). Similarly insecticides are also considered as predominant in emerging agricultural activities, i.e. crops and livestock, are the chief consumers of these insecticides worldwide reaching to 74% of the yearly utilization with 1% for forestry (Pimentel et al., 1991). Pesticides like Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT), lindane are being widely used in Scandinavian and Asian countries on large scale for agriculture purposes. (Voldner and Li, 1995). While the maximum use of the DDT is to resist mosquito vectors of tse-tse fly and malaria in South Africa and tropical countries. The use of these pesticides also varies as harvests fluctuate extensively like corn, cotton crops and soybean are the chief herbicides consumers in the world with 75% in United States of America and 25% rest of the world, similarly insecticides are used for plantations while vegetables and vineyards utilize maximum of the fungicides (Pimentel et al., 1991).

Pesticides are also classified on the basis of their composition named: Organophosphates, pyrethroids, organochlorines, carbamates and chlorines. Some pesticides are soluble in water while others are soluble in organic solvents. They perform various functions on the basis of their composition. They usually touch the nervous system of the pests and destroy them. They are harmless in expressions of their use for non target material (Badii and Landeros, 2007; Ortiz-Hernandez et al., 2013).

Behavior of pesticides in the environment

Pesticides after their utilization for target plants, are disposed of in the soil, they normally have capacity to migrate within the soil through water by the process of transport or degradation (Singh, 2012; Liu et al., 2015) and finally degradation of pesticide in the environment generates many new substances or chemicals as mntioned in Figure 1 (Marie et al., 2017). Pesticides can also move from target sites to other sites having no vegetation by the process of transfer involving leaching, adsorption, spray drift, volatilization and runoff depending upon their behavior (Robinson et al., 1999). Pesticides like organochlorine complexes containing DDT which has low acute toxicity but it can produce chronic impacts because this persists in the tissues of plants leading to long lasting destruction of growth and physiological activities, whereas organophosphate pesticides have also slight effects, but these can produce negative impacts if persist for a longer period in mammals (Kim et al., 2017; Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011).

 

Initially, pesticides are spread in the environment through air, water, soil, animals and plants but finally these are converted to their derivatives or converted to their more complex structures. The quantity of pesticides also contribute to a larger extent because after degradation, these chemicals migrates towards soil, air and ground water which recirculate with their movement (Kerle et al., 2007). Pesticide can persist for a longer period of time in environment depending upon the half life of compounds constituting these pesticides although, a pesticide generally has a half-life of fifteen days. It has been reported by many authors that 50% of the pesticides can exist fifteen days after their applications to the target plants while half of that quantity (25% of the original quantity) can exist for thirty days more. Due to posing this character of extension in the half life, as the life time increases, the mobility of these pesticides also increase in the soil and environment (Tiryaki and Temur, 2010).

There are various factors which effect the persistence of these pesticides which include photo-degradation, microbial degradation and chemical degradation. The degree of degradation of these pesticides in the environment also depends on chemistry of compounds, environmental conditions and circulation pattern (Simeonov et al., 2013). Kerle et al. (2007) also reported that mobility of pesticides in the environment is exaggerated by the sorption, solubility, vapor pressure, environmental conditions including weather, canopy, topography, ground cover and texture, organic matter, structure of soil. By modeling the occurrence of pesticide, can be a valuable way for evaluating the destiny and also the influence of pesticide in the surroundings, which may be used to find out the amount, frequency of breakdown that provides the evidence for the removal of pesticide from the environment (Sunaryani and Rosmalina, 2021; Tiryaki and Temur, 2010).

Impacts of pesticides on plants, animals, soil ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem and atmosphere

Advantages of pesticides are converted into the disadvantages due to its harmful impacts which are due to interference and inclusion of pesticides in the food chain especially in drinking water sources (Tariq et al., 2003) as shown in Table 1. Health impacts are mainly associated with the food which is contaminated with toxic pesticides. This is because pesticides sprayed mostly effect species which are non-targeted in air, water and soil (Miller, 2004). Toxicity of pesticides is resulted from inhalation, ingestion and absorption. If exposure to pesticides continued for a long period, it is resulted in serious diseases including: neurological dysfunctions, hormonal imbalance, immune system dysfunction and blood disorders etc. (Kubrak et al., 2012). Pesticides have significant dangerous effects on plant growth, germination, and development, variations in biochemical passageways, yield and some antioxidant enzymes as explained in Table 1 (Parveen et al., 2016). Accumulation of pesticide by plants effects the growth of plants by causing metabolic disorders (Sharples et al., 1997).

Pesticides also have adverse impacts on health of human and animals in several ways as mentioned in Table 2. Pesticides enter into the human body by inhalation from air, dust and vapors containing pesticides, orally by consuming contaminated water and food and by dermal exposure through direct contact with pesticides (Sacramento, 2008). Pesticides are sprayed on food crops from there they secrete in soil and water and pollute them for consuming and spray drift pollute air. Exposure to these contaminated goods takes pace when these are in contact with human body in the environment (Lorenz, 2009). People are put in trouble during management and utilization of pesticides, as these produce toxicity during cleaning, keeping apparatus, pollution of water, clothing and food (Hutter, 2021).

Several impacts of pesticides have also been observed on soil ecosystem as long term storage compartment is provided by soil to pesticides having organic carbon because of its buffer, filtering capacity and high potential of degradation as described in Table 3 (Burauel and Bassmann, 2005). Pesticides present in soil are exposed through direct or indirect ways. Directly these are exposed through application in the field while indirect means are accidental leakage, spillage or run-off through plant surface (Bailey and White, 1970; Rashid et al., 2010). Contamination of soil may occur due to uncontrolled use of pesticides which can kill non-targeted organisms by damaging soil biomass witch effect microorganisms including bacteria, earthworm and fungi (Azam et al., 2003) as shown in Table 4. When pesticides target non-targeted organisms, this damage their metabolism which is required for soil fertility and pesticide degradation (Kale and Raghu, 1989). For control of pests and plant diseases, farmers use pesticides excessively which damage the soil adversely (Oberemok et al., 2015).

 

Table 1: Impacts of pesticides on plants.

S. No	Impact	Reference
1	Affect plant growth, germination, and development, variations in biochemical passageways, yield and some antioxidant enzymes	Parveen et al., 2016
2	Affect the physiology of crop	Giménez–Moolhuyzen et al., 2020
3	Affect the plant growth and cause metabolic disorders	Sharples et al., 1997
4	Block the photosystem II in photosynthesis pathway	DelValle, et al., 1985
5	Affect the photosystem II badly in chloroplast	Devine et al., 1993
6	Reduced chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll along with carotenoid contents in the leaves of pepper	Tort and Turkyilmaz, 2003
7	Decrease in the supply of photosynthesis in the roots	Alonge, 2000
8	Decrease in photosystem II and whole chain activities	Mathur and Bohra, 1992
9	Reduced the growth of root and shoot	Mishra et al., 2008
10	Caused nearly complete inhibition of growth in maize plants	Murthy et al., 2005
11	Decrease in pods and seed yield of rice crop	Mugo, 1989
12	Decrease in the growth and yield of barley plants	Boonlertnirun et al., 2005
13	Changes in vegetation growth, death of plant, decrease in reproduction capability, reduced fitness and detrimental, economic and ecological impacts	Altman, 1993
14	Mutations in crop genes and changes in uptake of nutrients, transport of nutrients and metabolism of crops	Marrs et al., 1991

 

Table 2: Impacts of pesticides on human and animals.

Sr. No	Impacts	Reference
1	Cause of chronic diseases which effect nervous system, reproductive system, cardiovascular system, renal system and respiratory system	Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2012
2	Cause headaches, skin rashes, nausea, body ache, poor concentration, dizziness, cramps, panic attacks, impaired vision, birth defects, production of benign or malignant tumors, toxicity in fetus, mutations, nerve disorders, genetic changes, blood disorders, reproduction effects and endocrine disruption. In animals pesticides cause potential carcinogens, reproductive toxins, neurotoxins and immune toxins. Some studies show the development of neurodegenerative diseases	PAN, 2012

 

Table 3: Impacts of pesticides on soil ecosystem.

Sr. No.	Impact	Reference
1	Damages and reduction of soil biomass	Azam et al., 2003
2	Damages in the local metabolism	Kale and Raghu, 1989
3	Contaminate the soil nutrients and cause adverse effects on humans and environment	Oberemok et al., 2015
4	Cause acute poisoning for microbial biomass	Yadav and Devi et al., 2015
5	Pollute surface and water bodies	Yadav and Devi, 2017
6	Decline in the soil fertility	Jia and Conrad, 2009

 

Table 4: Impacts of pesticides on aquatic ecosystem.

S. No.	Impact	Reference
1	Create pollution in aquatic ecosystem and cause ecological damages which in turn damage the natural habitat of fishes in water bodies	Macneale et al., 2010
2	Damages of aquatic life which includes fish and plants by reducing dissolve oxygen levels leading to changes in physiology of aquatic life	Mahmood et al., 2016
3	Damage of aquatic plants, animals and marine populations	Helfrich et al., 2009

 

Pesticides also create pollution in aquatic ecosystem as mentioned in Table 4. by contaminating surface and ground water. Ground water contamination cause major changes in water quality. Even after controlled use of pesticides, traces are also found in drinking water which can be a source of human exposure to pesticides (Macneale et al., 2010). Water, which is the fundamental need of life, is being polluted severely because of several natural and anthropogenic activities (Hussain and Asi, 2008). Toxicity of pesticides in aquatic ecosystem is depended on some factors including exposure level, immune response, immunologic assay method, stress limits and toxicity of pesticide. Toxicity of pesticides have also been found high when these are present as composite mixture having several components (Banerjee, 1999).

Remediation technologies for pesticides removal

Due to increasing usage of pesticides, it is being a topic of great concern that how to remove pesticides from environment. Many techniques or remedies have been discovered for the removal of pesticides from environment including soil, water, air and food. The instant ways for removal or reduction of pesticide from food are washing, peeling, cooking and blanching (Street, 1969). However these methods are not enough to completely remove pesticides from food due to their stability and persistency. Biological and chemical treatments based technologies are available for pesticide recovery from polluted soil and decommissioning of hazardous wastes (Gavrilescu, 2009). Some suitable techniques have been given in the Table 4 which shows the use of different technologies and plants for removal of pesticides. In this regard, Contaminant-Immobilization Technology (CIT) is an in-situ approach used for very low effective cost for the restoration of soil polluted by pesticides within shorter period of time. In this technique, adsorption takes place which cause toxicity to non-targeted organisms. Minimum treatments are required because carbonate materials are generally are taken up from biological material by using organically active residues (Calugaru et al., 2018). Other one which is also most frequently used is the separation technology, in which solvents and synthetic surfactants are used to remove contaminant from sludge medium. In this remediation technique possible methods used are in the form of are; solvents, synthetic surfactants, soil flushing, cyclodextrins and Biosurfactants. The solvent is chosen depending on the pollutant which has to be removed (Mao and Yang, 2013).

Fenton advanced oxidation process is used to remove organochlorode pesticides (OCPs) including DDT. DDT pesticide is highly persistent and has high bioaccumulation which is hazardous to environment. However, this is not enough for complete removal of DDT and other chlorinated organic toxicants. For achieving complete removal of DDT, high utilization of ferrous salts are needed for recovery process and since the acids are used for degradation and removal of DDT, high amounts of acids acidifies the soil and cause erosion with loss of fertility of soil (Villa et al., 2008). Supercritical fluid extraction technique is also one of best techniques used for extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from subcritical polluted water. In this technique microorganisms are used for bioremediation and degrading the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from effluents including trinitrotoluene and poly chlorinated biphenyls (Ramos-Contreras et al., 2019). In Electro-kinetic remediation technique, zero valance iron nano-particles are used to prevent environment from pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and bio-chlorinated solvents. These are detoxified by using zero valence iron nano-particles but this technique has limitation, as zero valence iron nano-particles have high reactivity (Tummala and Tewari, 2018).

Photocatalysis is also good technique for degradation of pesticides which use semiconductors of metal oxides, sulfides, metal free ions and those materials which serve as substrate for photocatalyst in composite material. This technique may include: titanium oxide based photocatalysis, zinc sulfide based photocatalysis, G-C3N4 based photocatalysis and graphite based photocatalysis (Lin and Shen et al., 2014). Phytoremediation is a biological technique for the removal of pesticides from environment which is very cheap technique working on solar power. Phytoremediation use efficient plant species which can remove or eliminate pesticide pollutants from environment. This technique can remove pesticide pollutants from 0% to 70% (Main et al., 2017). Plants remove pesticide pollutants by using Phytodegradation, Phytoextraction and Rhizodegradation (Truua et al., 2015). These techniques are highly ecofriendly, safe, economical or less costly and effective for the removal of pesticide pollutants from environment (Kuppusamy et al., 2016). Algae is a potent organism for the removal of pesticide pollutants through microalgae pesticide remediation which is a photosynthetic organism which convert solar energy into chemical energy and has a very simple structure which make transport of nutrients easier and faster (Chacoon-Lee and González-Mariño, 2010). Microalgae remove pesticides from contaminated sites by bioaccumulation and considered a potent organism for this purpose because it uses organic pollutants as their energy source (Chojnacka, 2010). Microalgae are efficient biosorbents which not only accumulate pesticides but also convert them into less toxic substances. The efficiency of this biodegradation is dependent upon environmental condition, nature and concentration of pesticide which is to be degraded (Ortiz-Hernandez et al., 2013). Microalgae can survive in any environmental condition and are capable of efficient biodegradation of pesticides from contaminated sites (Subashchandrabose et al., 2013).

Degradation of pesticides by using bacteria is another biological method which is very less cost effective, ecofriendly and best technique for removal of pesticides (Gavrilescu, 2005). Bacteria can degrade pesticides at good rate isolated from different ecosystems including bacteria from genus Arthrobacter, Flavobacterium, Burkholderia, Peudomonas and Azobacter. This is an effective technique which does not cause any further damage to environment. In this technique microbes degrade pesticides for nutrients and release CO2 and H2O in environment (Huang and Zeng, 2008). Degradation of pesticides is also dependent on the conditions of available environment, exposure and specie of bacteria. Efficiency of bacteria for pesticide removal is faster in the presence of anions (Rani and Dhania, 2014) and bacteria uptake pesticide pollutants converting them into inorganic compounds. Mycoremediation is also a biological technique for pesticide removal which includes fungi for degradation of pesticide as fungi is a eukaryotic, saprophytic, heterotrophic and parasitic organism which produce spore and grow in cool and humid environment (Jobard et al., 2010). Fungi transform and detoxify pollutants by taking them up from contaminated environment. By this procedure fungi remove pesticides from soil and water ecosystem (Tortella et al., 2005). Fungi also cause changes in chemical structure of pesticide and convert them into non-toxic compounds which are easily degraded by microflora (Hai and Modin, 2012). Fungi use different processes for pesticide degradation including Hydroxylation, Dioxylation, Dechlorination, Dehydrochlorination and Esterification. Fungi use these processes for pesticide degradation because pesticide have various functional groups which minimize the crop damage. Fungi attack on functional groups of pesticides and cause rapid degradation of pesticides (Maqbool et al., 2016; Ponnuchamy et al., 2021).

Conclusions and Recommendation

Pesticides are chemical fertilizers used mostly in agriculture sector for controlling unwanted organisms which can damage crops. Although pesticides have many benefits but also pose severe impacts on environment. They damage our natural environment by contaminating it and cause several health issues. Recently, removal of pesticide pollutants is a topic of major concern worldwide. Many techniques have been developed for removal of pesticides in this regard and many new techniques are being developed for their safe removal. Pesticides can be removed from soil, water and environment by using plants, animals and different chemicals. Soil and environment can be saved from pesticides toxicity by wise use of pesticide for crops.

Novelty Statement

This review paper will help to get knowledge about the sources, impacts control measures of pesticides which are a serious threat towards health, environmental and soil erosion.

Author’s Contribution

Khaliq Dad and Fenliang Zhao: Designed and planned the work.

Rumsha Hassan: Collected the literature.

Tahreem Fatima: Screened the literature.

Humaira Nawaz: Assessed the pesticide material.

Kainat Javed and Muhammad Usman Saleem: Wrote and reviewed the paper.

Muhamad Nawaz: Handled the correction, revision and submission.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

References

Alavanja, M.C., 2009. Introduction: Pesticides use and exposure, extensive worldwide. Rev. Environ. Health, 24: 303-310. https://doi.org/10.1515/REVEH.2009.24.4.303

Alonge, S.O., 2000. Effect of imazaquin applications on the growth, leaf chlorophyll and yield of soybean in the guinea savanna of Nigeria. J. Environ. Sci. Health B, 35: 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601230009373273

Amaral, A.F.S., 2014. Pesticides and asthma: Challenges for epidemiology. Front. Publ. Health, 2: 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00006

Arias-Estevez, A., L. Lopez-Periago, E. Martinez-Carballo, J.S.Gandara, J. Mejuto and L.S. Luis Garcia-Río. 2008. The mobility and degradation of pesticides in soils and the pollution of groundwater resources. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 123(4): 247-260. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167880907001934

Azam, F., S. Farooq and A. Lodhi. 2003. Microbial biomass in agricultural soils determination, synthesis, dynamics and role in plant nutrition. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 6(7): 629-639. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2003.629.639

Badii, M.H., and J.L. Flores. 2007. Plaguicidas que afectan a la salud humana y la sustentabilidad. Cult. Cient. Tecnol., 4(19): 21-34.

Bailey, G.W. and J.L. White. 1970. Factors influencing the adsorption, desorption, and movement of pesticides in soil. In Single Pesticide Volume: The Triazine Herbicides, pp. 29-92. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-8464-3_4

Banerjee, B.D., 1999. The influence of various factors on immune toxicity assessment of pesticide chemicals. Toxicol. Lett., 107: 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4274(99)00028-4

Bashir, M.H., M. Zahid, M.A. Khan, M. Shahid, A.K. Khan, and L. Amrao. 2018. Pesticides toxicity for Neoseiulus barkeri (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and non-target organisms. Pak. J. Agric. Sci., 55: 63-71. https://doi.org/10.21162/PAKJAS/18.5277

Boonlertnirun, S., K. Boonlertnirun and I. Sooksathan. 2005. In: Proceedings of 43rd Kasetsart University Annual Conference, Thailand, 1–4 February, pp. 37–43.

Bourguet, D. and T. Guillemaud. 2016. The hidden and external costs of pesticide use. Sustain. Agric. Rev., 19: 35-120. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26777-7_2

Burauel, P. and F. Bassmann. 2005. Soils as filter and buffer for pesticides-experimental concepts to understand soil functions. Environ. Pollut., 133: 11-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.04.011

Calugaru, I.L., C.M. Neculita, T. Genty and G.J. Zagury. 2018. Metals and metalloids treatment in contaminated neutral effluents using modified materials. J. Environ. Manage., (212):142-159.

Chacoon-Lee, T.L., and G.E. González-Mariño. 2010. Microalgae for healthy foods possibilities and challenges. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf., 9: 655–675. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00132.x

Chojnacka, K., 2010. Biosorption and bioaccumulation the prospects for practical applications. Environ. Int., 36(3): 299–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2009.12.001

Damalas, C.A., and I. Eleftherohorinos. 2011. Pesticide exposure, safety issues, and risk assessment indicators. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health, 8l: 1402–1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8051402

DelValle, T.B.G., J.A. Barden and R.E. Byera. 1985. Thinning of peaches by temporary inhibition of photosynthesis with terbacil. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 110: 804–807.

Devine, M.D., S.O. Duke and C. Fedtke. 1993. Herbicidal inhibition of photosynthetic electron transport. In: Physiology of Herbicide Action, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. pp. 113.

Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. FAOSTAT. 2010 [cited 2010]; Available from: http: //faostat.fao.org/site/424/default.aspx#%23ancor

Garcia, F.P., S.Y.C. Ascencio, J.C.G. Oyarzun, A.C. Hernandez, and P.V. Alavarado. 2012. Pesticides: Classification, uses and toxicity. Measures of exposure and genotoxic risks. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Toxic. Res., 1: 279–293.

Gavrilescu, M., 2009. Emerging processes for soil and groundwater cleanup-potential benefits and risks. Environ. Eng. Manag., 8: 1293–1307. https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2009.190

Gavrilescu, M., 2005. Fate of pesticides in the environment and its bioremediation. Eng. Life Sci., 5(6): 497–526. https://doi.org/10.1002/elsc.200520098

Gianessi, L.P., and C.S. Silvers. 2000. Trends in crop pesticide use: Comparing 1992 and 1997: Office of Pest Management Policy, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Gilden, R.C., K. Huffling and B. Sattler. 2010. Pesticides and health risks. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal. Nurs. 39(1): 103-110. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2009.01092.x

Gunstone, T., T. Cornelisse, K. Klein, A. Dubey, and N. Donley. 2021. Pesticides and soil invertebrates: A hazard assessment. Front. Environ. Sci., 9: 122. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.643847

Hai, F.I., O. Modin, K. Yamamoto, K. Fukushi, F. Nakajima, and L.D. Nghiem. 2012. Pesticide removal by a mixed culture of bacteria and white-rot fungi. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 43(3): 459–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2011.11.002

Hassaan, M.A., and A. El-Nemr. 2020. Pesticides pollution: Classifications, human health impact, extraction and treatment techniques. Egypt. J. Aquat. Res., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2020.08.007

Helfrich, L.A., D.L. Weigmann P.A. Hipkins and E.R. Stinson. 2009. Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems. Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE).

Huang, D.L. and G.M. Zeng. 2008. Degradation of lead-contaminated lignocellulosic waste by Phanerochaete chrysosporium and the reduction of lead toxicity. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42(13): 4946-4951.

Hussain, A., and M.R. Asi. 2008. Pesticides as water pollutants. Groundwater for sustainable development problems. Perspect. Challenges, 1: 95.

Hutter, H.P., M. Poteser, K. Lemmerer, P. Wallner, M. Kundi, H. Moshammer and L. Weitensfelder. 2021. Health symptoms related to pesticide use in farmers and laborers of ecological and conventional banana plantations in ecuador. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health, 18(3): 1126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031126

Jia, Z., and R. Conrad. 2009. Bacteria rather than Archaea dominate microbial ammonia oxidation in an agricultural soil. Environ. Microbiol., 11(7): 1658–1671. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.01891.x

Jobard, M., S. Rasconi and T. Sime-Ngando. 2010. Diversity and functions of microscopic fungi: a missing component in pelagic food webs. Aquatic Sci., 72(3): 255-268.

Kale, S.P., and K. Raghu. 1989. Relationship between microbial numbers and other microbial indices in soil. Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol., 43(6): 941–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01702069

Kerle, E.A., J.J. Jenkins and P.A. Vogue. 2007. Understanding pesticide persistence and mobility for groundwater and surface water protection. Oregon State Univ Extension Service, EM8561-E.

Kim, K.H., E. Kabir, and S.A. Jahan. 2017. Exposure to pesticides and the associated human health effects. Sci. Total Environ., 575: 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.009

Kubrak, O.I., T.M. Atamaniuk, V.V. Husak, I.Z. Drohomyretska, J.M. Storey, K.B. Storey, and V.I. Lushchak. 2012. Oxidative stress responses in blood and gills of Carassius auratus exposed to the mancozebcontaining carbamate fungicide Tattoo. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 85(1): 37-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.08.021

Kuppusamy, S., T. Palanisami, M. Megharaj, K. Venkateswarlu, and R. Naidu. 2016. In-situ remediation approaches for the management of contaminated sites: A comprehensive overview. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 236: 1–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20013-2_1

Lin, R. and L. Shen. 2014. Enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen production activity via dual modification of MOF and reduced graphene oxide on CdS. Chem. Commun., 50(62): 8533-8535.

Liu, Y., R. Mo, F. Tang, Y. Fu, and Y. Guo. 2015. Influence of different formulations on chlorpyrifos behavior and risk assessment in bamboo forest of China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 22: 20245–20254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5272-2

Lorenz, E.S., 2009. Potential health effects of pesticides. Agric. Commun. Market., pp. 1–8.

Macneale, K.H., P.M. Kiffney, and N.L. Scholz. 2010. Pesticides, aquatic food webs, and the conservation of Pacific salmon. Front. Ecol. Environ., 8: 475–482. https://doi.org/10.1890/090142

Mahmood, I., S.R. Imadi, K. Shazadi, A. Gul and K.R. Hakeem. 2016. Effects of pesticides on environment. In: (eds. Hakeem, K., Akhtar, M., Abdullah, S.). Plant, soil and microbes: volume 1: implications in crop science. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27455-3_13

Main, K., K. Westergaard, S. Christensen, and S.J. Sørensen. 2017. The effect of long-term Mercury pollution on the soil microbial community. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., (36): 11–19.

Mao, Y. and X. Yang. 2013. Remediation of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) contaminated soil by successive hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin and peanut oil enhanced soil washing–nutrient addition: a laboratory evaluation. J. Soils Sediments, 13(2):403-412.

Maqbool, Z., S. Hussain, M. Imran, F. Mahmood, T. Shahzad, Z. Ahmed, F. Azeem, and S. Muzammil. 2016. Perspectives of using fungi as bioresource for bioremediation of pesticides in the environment: A critical review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 23(17): 16904–16925. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7003-8

Marie, L., S. Payraudeau, G. Benoit, M. Maurice, and I. Gwenaël. 2017. Degradation and transport of the chiral herbicide s-metolachlor at the catchment scale: Combining observation scales and analytical approaches. Environ. Sci. Technol., 51: 13231–13240. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02297

Marrs, R.H., A.J. Frost, and R.A. Plant. 1991. Effects of herbicide spray drift on selected species of nature conservation interest: The effects of plant age and the surrounding vegetation structure. Environ. Pollut., 69: 223-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(91)90146-N

Mathews, G.A., 2006. Pesticides: Health, safety and the environment. Black well Publishing, Oxford UK

Mathur, R., and S.P. Bohra. 1992. Effect of paclobutrazol on amino transferases; protein and proline content in Eruca sativa var. T-23 seedlings. J. Phytol. Res., 5: 93–95.

Miller, G.T., 2004. Sustaining the Earth, 6th ed. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove.

Mishra, V., G. Srivastava, S.M. Prasad and G. Abraham. 2008. Growth, photosynthetic pigments and photosynthetic activity during seedling stage of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in response to UV-B and dimethoate. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol., 92: 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pestbp.2008.05.003

Mnif, W., A.I.H. Hassine, A. Bouaziz, A. Bartegi, O. Thomas, and B. Roig. 2011. Effect of endocrine disruptor pesticides: A review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health, 8: 2265–2303. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8062265

Mostafalou, S., and M. Abdollahi. 2012. Concerns of environmental persistence of pesticides and human chronic diseases. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol., S5: e002. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-1459.S5-e002

Mostafalou, S., and M. Abdollahi. 2013. Pesticides and human chronic diseases: Evidences, mechanisms, and perspectives. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 268: 157–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2013.01.025

Mugo, H.M., 1989. Studies of insect pests of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan Millsp) during the flowering and post flowering stage and their impact on seed yield in Kenya. M.Sc. thesis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi.

Murthy, P.G., P.G. Mahadeva and M.S. Sudarshana. 2005. Toxicity of different imbibitions periods of dimethoate on germination, chlorophyll a/b, and dry matter of Glycine max (L) Merrill. Cv. KHSB-2, during early seedlings growth. J. Physiol. Res., 18: 199–201.

Oberemok, V.V., K.V. Laikova, Y.I. Gninenko, A.S. Zaitsev, P.M. Nyadar, and T.A. Adeyemi. 2015. A short history of insecticides. J. Plant Prot. Res., 55(3): 221–226. https://doi.org/10.1515/jppr-2015-0033

Oliveira, J.M, A.L.F. Destro, M.B. Freitas, and L.L. Oliveira. 2021. How do pesticides affect bats? A brief review of recent publications. Braz. J. Biol., 81(2): 499-507. https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.225330

Ortiz-Hernández, M.L., E. Sanchez-Salinas, M.L.C. Godínez, E.D. González and E.C.P. Ursino. 2013. Mechanisms and strategies for pesticide biodegradation: Opportunity for waste, soils and water cleaning. Rev. Int. Contamin. Ambiental, 29: 85-104.

Ortiz-Hernandez, M.L., E. Sánchez-Salinas, E. Dantán-González, and M.L. Castrejon-Godinez. 2013. Pesticide biodegradation: mechanisms, genetics and strategies to enhance the process. Biodegrad. Life Sci., 2013: 251–287.

Overview of Ecological Risk Assessment, 2004. Process in the office of pesticides programme, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Endangered and Threatened species Effect Determination. Office of pesticide programmes, Washington D.C. Jan, 2004. [Cited on 2018 April 8]. 6. Pesticide Management division, NIPHM; Pesticide

PAN, 2012. Pesticides and health hazards facts and figures. Pesticide Action Network, Germany, GLS Gemeinschaftsbank.

Parween, T., S. Jan, S. Mahmooduzzafar, T. Fatma and Z.H. Siddiqui. 2016. Selective effect of pesticides on plant. A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 56(1): 160-179. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2013.787969

Pesticide Management division, 2018. NIPHM; Pesticide classification on use, chemical nature, formulation toxicity and action, etc, Hyderabad pp. 1-17.

Pimentel, D., L. McLaughlin, A. Zepp, B. Laikitan and T. Kraun. 1991. Environmental and economic effects of reducing pesticide use. BioScience, 41(6): 402-409. https://doi.org/10.2307/1311747

Pimentel, D., 1996. Green revolution agriculture and chemical hazards. Sci. Total Environ., 188: S86-S98. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(96)05280-1

Ponnuchamy, M., A. Kapoor, P.S. Kumar, D.V.N. Vo, A. Balakrishnan, M.M. Jacob and P. Sivaraman. 2021. Sustainable adsorbents for the removal of pesticides from water: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett., pp. 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01183-1

Ramos-Contreras, C., G. Concha-Grana, P. Lopez-Mahia, F. Molina-Perez, and S. Muniategui-Lorenzo. 2019. Determination of atmospheric particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using subcritical water extraction coupled with membrane microextraction. J. Chromatograph., (1606): 460-381.

Rani, K., and G. Dhania. 2014. Bioremediation and biodegradation of pesticide from contaminated soil and water. A noval approach. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 3(10): 23–33.

Rashid, A., S. Nawaz, H. Barker, I. Ahmad and M. Ashraf. 2010. Development of a simple extraction and clean-up procedure for determination of organochlorine pesticides in soil using gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A, 1217: 933-2939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2010.02.060

Riedo, J., F. Wettstein, E. Rösch, A. Herzog, C. Banerjee, S. Büchi, and M.G. van der Heijden. 2021. Widespread occurrence of pesticides in organically managed agricultural soils the ghost of a conventional agricultural past? Environ. Sci. Technol., 55(5): 2919-2928. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c06405

Robinson, D.E., A. Mansingh, and T.P. Dasgupta. 1999. Fate and transport of ethoprophos in the Jamaican environment. Sci. Total Environ., 238: 373–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00150-3

Sacramento, C.A., 2008. Department of pesticide regulation what are the potential health effects of pesticides? Community Guide to Recognizing and Reporting Pesticide Problems, pp. 27–29.

Sharples, C.R., M.R. Null and A.H. Cobb. 1997. Growth and photosynthetic characteristics of two biotypes of the weed black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds) resistant and susceptible to the herbicide chlorotoluron. Ann. Bot., 79: 455–461. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbo.1996.0380

Simeonov, L.I., F.Z. Macaev and B.G. Simeonova. 2013. Environmental Security Assessment and Management of Obsolete Pesticides in Southeast Europe. Springer Netherlands.

Singh, D.K., 2012. Pesticides and environment. Pestic. Chem. Toxicol., 1: 114–122. https://doi.org/10.2174/978160805137311201010114

Street, J.C., 1969. Methods of removal of pesticide residues. Can. Med Assoc. J., 100: 154–160.

Subashchandrabose, S.R., B. Ramakrishnan, M. Megharaj, K. Venkateswarlu, and R. Naidu. 2013. Mixotrophic cyanobacteria and microalgae as distinctive biological agents for organic pollutant degradation. Environ. Int., 51: 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2012.10.007

Sunaryani, A., and R.T. Rosmalina. 2021. Persistence of carbaryl pesticide in environment using system dynamics model. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. IOP Publ., 623(1): 012048. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/623/1/012048

Tariq, M.I., I. Hussain and S. Afzal. 2003. Policy measures for the management of water pollution in Pakistan. Pak. J. Earth Environ. Sci., 3: 11-15.

Tarla, D.N., L.E. Erickson, G.M. Hettiarachchi, S.I. Amadi, M. Galkaduwa, L.C. Davis and V. Pidlisnyuk. 2020. Phytoremediation and bioremediation of pesticide-contaminated soil. Appl. Sci., 10(4): 1217. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10041217

Tiryaki, O., and C. Temur. 2010. The fate of pesticide in the environment. J. Biol. Environ. Sci., 4(10): 29-38.

Tort, N. and B. Turkyilmaz. 2003. Physiological effects of captan fungicide on pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Pak J. Biol. Sci., 6(24): 2026–2029. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2003.2026.2029

Tortella, G.R., M.C. Diez, and N. Durán. 2005. Fungal diversity and use in decomposition of environmental pollutants. Crit. Rev. Microbiol., 31(4): 197–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408410500304066

Truua, J., M. Truua, M. Espenberga, H. Nolvaka, and J. Juhanson. 2015. Phytoremediation and plantassisted bioremediation in soil and treatment wetlands. A review. Open Biotechnol. J., 9: 85–92. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874070701509010085

Tudi, M., H. Daniel Ruan, L. Wang, J. Lyu, R. Sadler, D. Connell and D.T. Phung. 2021. Agriculture development, pesticide application and its impact on the environment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health, 18(3): 1112. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112

Tummala, C.M. and S. Tewari. 2018. Electro-Kinetic Remediation Processes--A Brief Overview and Selected Applications.

Villa, R.D., A.G. Trovo and R.F.P. Nogueira. 2008. Environmental implications of soil remediation using the Fenton process. Chemosphere, 71(1):43-50.

Voldner, E., and Y. Li. 1995. Global usage of selected persistent organochlorines. Sci. Total Environ., 160-161: 201-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(95)04357-7

Waheed, S., C. Halsall, A.J. Sweetman, K.C. Jones and R.N. Malik. 2017. Pesticides contaminated dust exposure, risk diagnosis and exposure markers in occupational and residential settings of Lahore, Pakistan. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 56: 375-382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2017.11.003

Yadav, I.C., N.L. Devi, J.H. Syed, Z. Cheng, J. Li G. Zhang, and K.C. Jones. 2015. Current status of persistent organic pesticides residues in air, water, and soil, and their possible effect on neighboring countries: A comprehensive review of India. Sci. Total Environ., 511: 123–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.041

Yadav, I.C., and N.L. Devi. 2017. Pesticides classification and its impact on human and environment environ. Sci. Engg. Toxicol., 6: 140-158.

Zhang, C., Y. Sun, R. Hu, J. Huang, X. Huang, Y. Li, Y. Yin, and Z. Chen. 2018. A comparison of the effects of agricultural pesticide uses on peripheral nerve conduction in China. Sci. Rep., 2018: 8–9621. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-27713-6