Nematicidal Activity of Pyrolisate of Bambusa vulgaris on Root-Knot Nematode; Meloidogyne incognita of Lettuce

Nusirat Aderinsola Sadiku1, Oluwatoyin Adenike Fabiyi2* and Tesleem Taye Bello3

1Department of Forest Resources Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Nigeria; 2Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Nigeria; 3Department of Agricultural Education, Federal College of Education PMB 2096, Abeokuta, Nigeria.

Received | November 03, 2023; Accepted | November 28, 2023; Published | December 12, 2023

*Correspondence | Fabiyi, O.A., Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Nigeria; Email: fabiyitoyinike@hotmail.com

Citation | Sadiku, N.A., Fabiyi, O.A. and Bello, T.T., 2023. Nematicidal activity of pyrolisate of Bambusa vulgaris on root-knot Nematode; Meloidogyne incognita of lettuce. Pakistan Journal of Nematology, 41(2): 170-181.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjn/2023/41.2.170.181

Keywords | Meloidogyne incognita, Lactuca sativa, Pyroligneous liquor, Bioactivity, Nematicide, Bamboo

Copyright: 2023 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Pyroligneous acids or liquors which are generally light red or reddish brown in colour have been produced from diverse biomasses ranging from forest, agricultural and household wastes. Pyrolysis is a thermo-chemical process of decomposition of lignocellulosic materials into smaller molecules by thermal energy (Demirbas, 2007). The yields of Pyroligneous liquor (PL) depend on the pyrolysis procedures, moisture contents of feeding materials (Antal and Gronli, 2003), type of feeding materials (Fapetu, 1994; Oladeji, 2013); heating rate (Putun et al., 2007); and temperature (Oladeji, 2012; Yaman, 2004; Weerachanchai et al., 2011).

The bioactivities and possible applications of Pyroligneous liquor (PL) have been extensively explored (Souza et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2013, 2014; Wu et al., 2015). PL has been reported to contain various types of important biologically active components such as; organic acids, phenolic, alkane, furan derivatives, esters, alcohol, sugar derivatives, and nitrogen compounds (Wei et al., 2010; Pimenta et al., 2018). The diversity of functions of PL has attracted attention due to its environmental friendliness. PL has been widely used in medicine, food and agriculture (Cai et al., 2012; Dissatian et al., 2018). In agriculture, PL specifically from bamboo has been used in controlling insects pests such as termites, flies, ticks and fleas (Yatagai, 2004; Hagner et al., 2018); ameliorate soil, aids crop germination, used as fertilizer (Mohan et al., 2006; Jung, 2007; Wei et al., 2009, 2010); feed additive to improve animal performance (Samanya and Yamauchi, 2001; Yoo et al., 2007; Watarai and Koiwa, 2008; Choi et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2012); antibacterial, antifungal and antivirus for eliminating non-beneficial soil microbes (Mu et al., 2004, 2006), Herbicide (Tworkoski, 2002; Salonen et al., 2008; Ruuttunen, 2007); simulate plant growth (Mu et al., 2004, 2006); mushroom fruit-body formation stimulant (Yoshimura et al., 1995) and many more. Bamboo has been one of the popular sources of PL, however, there are still limited studies available on the bioactivities of PL obtained from bamboo against nematode pests.

Plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) are regarded as a major threat to agricultural crop production causing extensive significant yield losses to farmers worldwide (Javad et al., 2006; Fabiyi, 2022a). Meloidogyne species also called the root-knot nematodes (RKN) are described as the most devastating due to their wide host range (Bello et al., 2020; Fabiyi, 2021a) and being responsible for yearly crop loss reaching approximately hundred million US dollars worldwide (Chitwood, 2003). Characteristic symptoms of RKN infection include visible galling of the roots, stunting, wilting and nitrogen deficiency signs (Siddiqui et al., 2001; Fabiyi, 2021b). Control of RKN is made difficult due to their wide host range, high rate of reproduction and short lifecycle (Natarajan et al., 2006).

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is an important crop that is widely grown in many home gardens and almost sometimes cooked, it is exclusively eaten as a fresh vegetable in salads (Lebeda et al., 2007). Lettuce is also produced on a commercial scale in different countries worldwide (Lebeda et al., 2007; Mou, 2008). In Nigeria, Lettuce is generally considered an important exotic vegetable crop and its increased production was attributed to the increasing awareness about its health and nutritional benefits (Ogbodo et al., 2010; Shuaibu and Mohammed, 2018). Lettuce like many other vegetable crops is susceptible and severely affected by the root-knot nematodes causing substantial yield losses thereby posing a significant threat to its production worldwide (Raid, 2004; Fabiyi, 2022). Growers most times resort to the use of synthetic chemical nematicides in managing this economically important pest (Fabiyi and Bello, 2023). Chemical control, aside being expensive, poses a potential hazard to the environment, crops and human health (Tsay et al., 2004; Fabiyi and Olatunji, 2021; Fabiyi et al., 2023). Due to the health and environmental hazards posed by continuous use of these synthetic nematicides, the search for other eco-friendly alternatives has been on the increase. The antibacterial properties and the effects of PL specifically bamboo PL as bacterial growth suppressors have been investigated by various researchers (Kim et al., 2005; Jankowsky et al., 2018). Pyroligneous liquid from different species of wood has been used to control birds (Strong, 1973) and insect pests (Pangnakorn, 2009; Regnault-Roger, 1997). They have also exhibited high insecticidal activities against termites (Yatagai et al., 2002), aphids (Myzus persicae) and psyllids (Trioza apicalis) (Lindqvist et al., 2010). Hagner et al. (2010) reported positive results on harmful soil microbes but no significant effects on nematodes when used at concentrations between 500-1360 Lha. Of all these reports, there is an inadequacy of scientific evidence to prove the efficacy of bamboo pyroligneous liquor in eradicating root-knot nematodes. In this study, we investigated the nematicidal activity of Bamboo Pyroligneous Liquor (BPL) against Meloidogyne incognita parasitizing lettuce plants.

Materials and Methods

Sample preparation and pyrolysis of the bamboo sample

Three to four-years old culm of Bambusa vulgaris were collected from Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan, Oyo state. The air-dried bamboo sample used was 1 kg which was 1.219 kg when collected fresh. The samples were cut into smaller sizes of about 4cm by 2cm and were air dried to constant weight. Slow pyrolysis was performed using an electric tube furnace. One kg of the dried bamboo biomass was fed into a locally fabricated laboratory scale pyroliser and was pyrolysed at a controlled temperature of 500 °C. The heating chamber was heated to 500 °C at a rate of 20 °C/min and then maintained for 150 min. The pyroligneous liquor was obtained by condensation of the volatile gases within 2 hours of reaching the desired pyrolytic temperature. Bio-oil was collected from the reactor outlet. The obtained BPL was analysed with Perkin–Elmer SPECTRUM-2000 spectrometer.

Oil property determination

The oil property of the liquor was determined using pH value, colour, odour, density, dissolved tar content, percentage ignition residue, yield and transparency through visual examination and the use of formulae.

Yield

Density

This was determined using the formula:

Percentage ignition residue

This was known using the formula:

Where A is the weight of crucible and residue after heating; B is the weight of empty crucible; C is the weight of sample (crude bio-oil).

Dissolved tar content

This was determined by oven drying already weighed crucible and sample (crude bio-oil) at 60℃ for 24 hrs. The black residue was then regarded as the dissolved tar content and the dissolved tar content was determined by subtracting the weight of crucible with oil after oven drying from the weight of crucible and oil before oven drying.

Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR)

The functional groups of BPL constituents were analysed using FTIR.

Nematode inoculum collection

Galled roots of Celosia argentea plants containing a pure culture of M. incognita eggs were collected from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria and multiplied on a susceptible tomato cultivar (Tropimech) using the protocol of Hussey and Baker (1973) so as to obtain the required quantity of nematode inoculum for the experiment. This was done by washing the galled roots thoroughly under running tap water to release the debris and sand attached to the roots. They were then cut into small bits between 1-1.5 cm lengths and poured into a litre glass jar containing a solution of 0.05% sodium hypochlorite. The jar was mixed thoroughly for four minutes after which the content was poured out and passed through stack of sieves: 75 µm, 55 µm, and 25 µm aperture, respectively. The eggs were retained inside the 25 µm sieve and were collected by using water to rinse the sieve off into a beaker and left in the laboratory at ambient temperature.

Bioactivity of the bamboo pyroligneous liquor on Meloidogyne incognita

The nematicidal effect of BPL on M. incognita infected lettuce plants was conducted at the screen-house of the Department of Crop Protection, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Thirty-five 10-litre plastic buckets were filled with steam-sterilized loamy soil. Three weeks old lettuce plants were transplanted from nursery into each bucket. Each lettuce plant was inoculated with 1,000 active second stage juveniles (J2s) of M. incognita after a week of transplanting. The juveniles were introduced using a syringe to inject four 3 cm deep holes encircling each lettuce plant per container. The lettuce plants were treated two weeks after nematode inoculation with 100, 200 and 400 mg/ml of BPL and also, carbofuran at 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 kg/a-i/ha. Lettuce growth was monitored for 5 weeks after treatment and at harvest.

Data collection and analysis

Data were taken on yield, nematode count in root, nematode count in 200 cc soil, number of leaves, and plant height. Additionally, 200 cc of soil was taken around each lettuce plant in the experimental pot and nematodes (J2s) were extracted using the modified Baermann tray (pie-pan) process (Coyne et al., 2007). Data were subjected to a factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) using R software version, significant means were separated with Tukey’s HSD at P< 0.05.

Result and Discussion

Physical properties of the pyroligneous liquor

Liquor yield: The product of pyrolysis is three; the solid (char), the liquid (pyroligneous liquor) and the gas. Although, in this study, emphasis was placed on the liquid part of the products. Bamboo presents a very different product yield from agricultural waste and forestry residue that has been used for oil production. The results showed that the yield of non-condensable gases out of the three bamboo products (solid, liquid, gas) has the highest percentage of (89%), followed by that of char (7.5%) while the yield of the liquid (BPL) was lowest with (3.5%) Table 1. These results are contrary to earlier findings on wood pyrolysis. Dobele et al. (2007) reported 63% liquid product when dried mixture of hardwood was pyrolysed at 550oC. Şensoz et al. (2000) reported 46% bio-oil weight pyrolysis of Brassica napus conducted at 500oC running at 40oC/min. Pütün et al. (1999) reported 23.1% for hazelnut shells pyrolysed in a fixed-bed tubular reactor under nitrogen at 500 °C and a heating rate of 7K/min. Pyrolysed sugarcane bagasse involving a laboratory scale vacuum condition produced more oil; 34.4% vs 30.1% and less charcoal 19.4 wt% vs 25.7 wt% compared to pilot scale runs (Garcia-Perez et al., 2002). According to Mohan et al. (2006) paper, wood and other biomass depending on the composition of the feedstock, yielded bio-oil within the range of 60-99%. The researchers concluded that high lignin contents have a tendency to give lower liquid yields. Likewise, Sarkar and Wang (2010) recorded 48.7% yield at 600oC indicating that temperature played a vital role in the product yield, as well as having a vital effect on the characteristics of the PL.

 

Table 1: Yield of pyroligneous liquor.

Products	Yield (g)
Char	7.5
Bio oil	3.5
Gas	89

 

Bamboo pyroligneous liquor characteristics

The main physical properties of bio-oil include heating value, water content, density, flash point, and so on. Table 2 shows the properties of the BPL based on some selected criteria such as pH value, moisture content, density, colour, odour, etc. It was discovered that bamboo has lower moisture content (18%) compared to between 15-35% reported by Bridgwater et al. (2001) and 48-56wt% by Weerachanchai et al. (2011).

 

Table 2: The physical properties of the liquor.

Physical properties	Results
pH	2.39
Density	1.04g/ml
colour	Dark brown
odour	smoky
Dissolve tar content	0.03
Transparency	Not transparent has no suspended matter
% Moisture	18

 

The moisture content is usually derived from both the original moisture in the feedstock and from dehydration reactions that occur during biomass pyrolysis and bio-oil storage (Lu et al., 2009). The pH value was 2.39 which corroborated Mohan et al. (2006) that the pH of bio-oil can be as low as 2 or 3 as well as Weerachanchai et al. (2011) who recorded 2.98 and 2.95 for palm shell and cassava pulp residue. However, this was extremely low to 5.62 recorded for palm kernel oil (Weerachanchai et al., 2011). The pyrolysis liquid products consisted of the water content, this pointed to the acidic content of the BPL. The majority of acidic compounds in bio-oil are carboxylic acids, acetic acid and formic acid which according to Piskorz et al. (1988) represent around 5 wt% and 3 wt% of bio-oil. This may account for the acidic pH of 2.39 that is exhibited by the BPL and the acidity may be a factor of antimicrobial activities.

The density of the BPL was 1.04 g/cm3. This is in line with the range of 1.1-1.3 g/cm3 reported in literatures (Xu et al., 2011; Weerachanchai et al., 2011). The bulk density of the BPL in this study falls in the range recorded by Weerachanchai et al. (2011) for palm kernel (1.01g/cm3), palm shell (1.11g/cm3) and cassava pulp residues (1.10g/cm3) and higher than 0.78g/cm3 and 0.94g/cm3 recorded for fast diesel oil (Islam et al., 1999) and heavy fuel oil (Zhang et al., 2007), respectively. The density of BPL may be attributed to the high content of cellulose, hemicellulose and other macromolecules like phenolic and oligomeric compounds (Oasmaa and Czernik, 1999) in the bamboo raw material.

According to Weerachanchai et al. (2011), the types of biomass have an influence on the bio-oil appearances depending on the biomass sources. Transparent, dark red-brown colour was recorded for pyrolysis liquids from cassava pulp residue while palm kernel oil had opaque dark colour but with separation of oil phase and

 

Table 3: Band position (cm-1), peak assignment and structural polymer present in Bamboo Pyroligneous liquor as determined by FT-IR analysis.

S. No	Band (cm-1)	Functional group
1.	3395.26	O-H stretching from cellulose	Phenols and Alcohols
2.	2955.15	C-H	Alkanes
3.	1732.98	C=O Stretch	Ester, six member lactone (ketone)
4.	1593.67	Aromatic skeletal vibration (C=C)	Olefinic compounds
5.	1511.35	Aromatic skeletal vibration (C=C), guaiacyl > 5	Phenolic compounds
6.	1460.69	CH deformation, asymmetry in CH3 and CH2	Olefinic compounds
7.	1362.53	CH2 and CH3 bending	Aldehyde and Ketones
8.	1223.22	C–O of guaiacyl ring	Phenolic
9.	1099.74	O–H deformation vibration	Alcohols and Phenolics
10.	1045.91	C–O stretch	Alcohols

 

aqueous phase (Weerachanchai et al., 2011). However, BPL obtained had a distinct dark-black viscous appearance with no suspended matter in it. This is similar to those reported in the literatures for bio-oil (Bridgwater et al., 2001; Bridgwater, 2004; Pollard et al., 2012). Aside black viscous appearance, Pollard et al. (2012) observed different colours ranging from extremely viscous black which on cooling turned to resinous solids at room temperature; honey-like flow characteristics; watery, red-tinted liquid similar to the characteristic of the BPL obtained in this study.

 

 

Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis

Infrared spectrum of the liquor obtained from pyrolysis of Bambusa vulgaris is presented in Figure 1. The characteristic peaks are presented in Table 3. The BPL contained diverse functional groups which were revealed at different wave numbers (Table 1). There were seven classes of compounds which are; alcohols, alkanes, esters, ketone, olefine, phenol and aldehyde. The BPL has O-H stretching vibration at 3395.26 cm-1 indicating the presence of polymeric O-H group that exists in water, phenol, alcohol, and/or carboxylic acids in the liquor. This indicates the presence of water/hydroxyl group, impurities and other polymeric O-H in the BPL (Lee et al., 2010; Islam et al., 2003). BPL is associated with highly oxygenated peak assignments with pronounced functional groups and aromatic compounds which makes them highly acidic (pH = 2.39). This result is in accordance with study conducted by Didem and Filiz (2004) and Natarajan and Ganapathy (2009) that the liquid composition from biomass of rice husk and rape cake, respectively are dominated by oxygenated compounds coupled with the C-O and aromatic compounds which showed the potential as a chemical feedstock.

The propensity of BPL to be utilised as fuel is largely due to the presence of alcohol and hydrocarbon (C-H; C-C) groups (Islam et al., 2012). The C=O stretching vibration at 1732.98cm-1 displayed aldehydes, carboxylic acids and ketonic compounds (Islam et al., 2012). The band of C-H stretching at 2955.15 cm-1 wave number shows the presence of alkanes in the BPL (Islam et al., 2003; Tsai et al., 2007). The C=C aromatic skeletal vibration, guaiacyl > 5 at 1511.35 cm-1 and C–O of guaiacyl ring at 1223.22 signifies the presence of phenolic compounds C=C aromatic skeletal vibration at 1593.67 cm-1 and the CH deformation, asymmetry in CH3 and CH2 vibration at 1460.69 cm-1 explains the presence of alcohol and olefinic (alkenes) compounds in the liquor. C-H deformation also occurred at 1362.53 cm-1. The Absorption bands of 1045.91 and 1099.74 cm-1 were due to the presence of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, ethers and esters due to the C–O stretching and O–H deformation vibration of these functional groups (Qian et al., 2007).

FTIR analysis of the BPL showed the presence of characteristic functional groups of alcohol, phenol, alkane, aldehyde and ester compound derivatives which were responsible for the nematicidal properties of the BPL. The obtained Pyroligneous liquor from B. vulgaris had typical infrared spectra that are comparable with Pyroligneous liquor from different lignocellulosic biomass from previous studies (Fuwape et al., 2011; Şensӧz, et al., 2006). Phenolic compounds were identified as the main organic components in the BPL followed by alcohols, olefins and ketonic compounds. Other components are esters, alkanes and aldehydes. The presence of phenol and ketone groups is attributed to its nematicidal activity. Most phenolic compounds have disinfectant properties. Several reports from literature suggested that high levels of organic and phenol contents in pyroligneous liquids had a positive correlation with bacterial growth inhibition (Ma et al., 2011; Wei et al., 2010a).

 

Table 4: Variations in the weekly height of L. sativa after the application of BPL and carbofuran treatments.

Treatment concentration	Mean plant height
	1 WAT	2 WAT	3 WAT	4 WAT	5 WAT
CBFN0	11.03d	12.13d	12.93e	15.00de	16.33e
BMBO0	9.93d	10.60d	12.43e	13.67e	17.00e
CBFN1	14.43b	13.57cd	15.17d	17.00d	21.67d
CBFN2	16.97b	16.93c	18.53cd	20.33c	26.67c
CBFN3	21.63ab	22.17b	23.70b	26.33b	32.00b
BMBO1	13.97bc	15.43c	18.50cd	20.53c	26.17c
BMBO2	15.17b	16.77c	20.27c	21.93c	31.67b
BMBO3	23.23a	24.73a	27.73a	29.33a	42.33a

 

WAT = weeks after treatment was added; BMBO0 = PL 0% (control); BMBO1 = PL 100mg/ml; BMBO2 = PL 200mg/ml); BMBO3 = PL 400mg/ml; CBFN0 = Carbofuran 0g (control); CBFN1 = Carbofuran 5g; CBFN2 = Carbofuran 10g; CBFN3 = Carbofuran 15g. Means in the same column with same alphabets are not significantly different at P≤ 0.05.

 

Effect on L. sativa agronomic parameters

Tables 4 and 5 show the plant height and number of leaves of L. sativa across the growing weeks after transplanting (WAT). There were significant differences observed in the mean heights and mean number of leaves of L. sativa (Tables 4 and 5). Likewise, at different concentrations of BPL and carbofuran, the height of L. sativa at week 1 was statistically similar for both BPL and carbofuran at highest treatment concentrations of 400 mg/ml and 15 g respectively even though 400 mg/ml BPL gave the highest plant height (23.23 cm) compared to that of carbofuran (21.63 cm). However, at 2, 3, 4 and 5 WAT; BPL at 400 mg/ml gave the highest plant height and number of leaves which were followed by carbofuran treatment at 15 g concentration. However, the control treatments for BPL and carbofuran both showed decreased plant height and number of leaves (Tables 4 and 5). The results showed that the higher the concentration of BPL and carbofuran, the higher the number of leaves and plant height. However, BPL treated plants perform best even compared to the conventional nematicide (carbofuran). Although, it has been discovered that conventional carbofuran promotes plant growth (Adegbite and Agbaje, 2007; Tanimola, 2008). However, in this study, treating root-knot nematode (M. incognita) in lettuce with BPL was more effective than carbofuran, although, the increase in the yield (Figure 2C) was immediately followed by that of lettuce treated with carbofuran compared to the control proving that BPL displayed higher nematicidal potential than carbofuran.

 

Table 5: Variations in the number of leaves of L. sativa after the application of BPL and Carbofuran treatment.

Treatment concentrations	Mean number of leaves
	1 WAT	2 WAT	3 WAT	4 WAT	5 WAT
CBFN0	5.00c	5.67d	6.33e	5.33f	6.00f
BMBO0	5.33c	9.00c	7.33e	4.33f	5.67f
CBFN1	7.00b	7.67cd	8.00d	9.00e	8.67e
CBFN2	7.67b	8.00c	11.00c	13.00cd	14.00c
CBFN3	12.67a	11.67b	13.67bc	15.67c	18.00b
BMBO1	7.00b	8.33c	11.33c	12.00d	12.33d
BMBO2	8.67b	10.00b	14.67b	17.00b	18.67b
BMBO3	13.67a	15.67a	18.67a	23.33a	24.67a

 

WAT = weeks after treatment was added; BMBO0 = PL 0% (control); BMBO1 = PL 100mg/ml; BMBO2 = PL 200mg/ml); BMBO3 = PL 400mg/ml; CBFN0 = Carbofuran 0g (control); CBFN1 = Carbofuran 5g; CBFN2 = Carbofuran 10g; CBFN3 = Carbofuran 15g. Means in the same column with same alphabets are not significantly different at P≤ 0.05

 

The increase in L. sativa height and number of leaves due to the addition of BPL may be a result of high organic acid content which is an essential component in the different compounds of BPL (Mungkunkamchao et al., 2013). Furthermore, the presence of some alcohols, aldehydes and acids has made BPL a viable energy and carbon substrate for some soil microbial agents that help to promote crop growth (Yang et al., 2014). Our findings agree with the previous reports of Mahmud et al. (2016) where 2% (v/v) pyroligneous acid used to fertilize okra (Abelmuscus esculentus) resulted in the highest mean number of fruits and leaves as well as studies of Mu et al. (2004, 2006), where bamboo vinegar showed an increase in vegetative growth, germination and radicle growth for several seeds. Thus, this study successfully demonstrated that BPL has great potential as an organic plant growth promoter with no detrimental effect on the environment.

 

Nematicidal effect of BPL on yield and nematode population in root and soil of lettuce plants

The results for nematode populations at harvest and yield of lettuce are presented in Figure 2A, B and C, respectively. There were significant variations in the root and soil nematode population across the BPL and carbofuran treatments applied (Figure 2). The nematode population in the root of L. sativa was highest for the control treatments which contained no BPL or carbofuran (Figure 2B). Generally, BPL had marked killing effect on both the soil and root nematodes compared to the carbofuran treatments and invariably an increase in yield of treated plants. The highest nematode population in the roots was 36 in BPL treatment as against 122 in carbofuran at 200 mg/ml and 5 g/ml, respectively. 11 nematodes were counted in 300 mg/ml of BPL as against 46.67 nematodes in 10 g/ml carbofuran. While no nematode was recorded at 400 mg/ml BPL treatments whereas, 16.33 were recorded for 15 g/ml carbofuran (Figure 2). The results of root nematode population follow a similar pattern to that of soil nematode population. These results showed that BPL was very effective in the control of M. incognita. Over the years, PL has shown interesting antimicrobial and disinfectant properties. PL has been used to control diversities of crop insect pests and diseases. For root-knot nematodes, Hagner et al. (2010) reported no significant effect on root-knot nematodes when used at concentrations between 500-1360 Lha-1. However, this study showed the killing effects of BPL on M. incognita even at low concentrations with complete eradication at higher dosage of 400 mg/ml. Whereas, carbofuran was able to lower the population of both the root and soil nematodes without complete killing. The action of BPL is attributed to the presence of compounds such as phenolic, carbonyls and organic acids (Lee at al., 2010; Loo et al., 2008).

Conclusions and Recommendations

Our findings have proved the efficacy of Bamboo Pyroligneous liquid both as a promising growth promoter and a potent nematicidal agent against root-knot nematode: M. incognita. This interesting nematicidal effect could be attributed to the presence of several compounds in the Pyroligneous liquor. BPL compared favourably to carbofuran (conventional nematicide) and the fact that it is an organic material makes it a viable alternative to the use of chemical nematicides in managing root-knot nematode pests of lettuce.

Acknowledgement

Dr. O. Adewuyi of IITA Ibadan, Nigeria for providing inoculum. Dr. I.A. Adegoke of FRIN Ibadan Nigeria for pyrolysis and Dr. R. Ibia of Labstock Lagos Nigeria for GCMS analysis.

Novelty Statement

This study has proved the efficacy of Bamboo Pyroligneous liquid as a potent nematicidal material which could serve as a substitute to chemical nematicides in managing M. incognita.

Author’s Contribution

Sadiku, N.A. and Fabiyi A.O. Designed the study.

Bello T.T. Analysed data.

Sadiku, N.A. Wrote the first draft of the manuscript.

Fabiyi A.O. and Bello T.T. Edited the final draft of the manuscript.

All authors approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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