Research Article

Ethno-Pharmacological Profile of Weed Flora of Dir-Upper District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Murad Muhammad1,2,3*, Shahid Ullah1, Nimrah Ameen4, Abdul Wahab3,5, Abdul Basit6, Muqadas Batool7, Muhammad Nazim2,3 and Haroon Khan8

1Phyto-ecology Lab, Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar 25120, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; 2State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Key Laboratory of Ecological Safety and Sustainable Development in Arid Lands, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi, 830011, PR China; 3University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; 4Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; 5Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; 6Department of Horticulture, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea; 7Department of Botany, Postgraduate College Layyah, Bahauddine Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan; 8Department of Weed Science and Botany, University of Agriculture Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan.

Received | January 09, 2024; Accepted | June 07, 2024; Published | June 27, 2024

*Correspondence | Murad Muhammad, Phyto-ecology Lab, Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar 25120, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; Email: Muradbotany1@uop.edu.pk

Citation | Muhammad, M., S. Ullah, N. Ameen, A. Wahab, A. Basit, M. Batool, M. Nazim and H. Khan. 2024. Ethno-pharmacological profile of weed flora of Dir-Upper District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 30(2): 44-54.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.PJWSR/2024/30.2.44.54

Keywords | Ethnobotany, Weed species, Medicinal uses, District Dir Upper

Copyright: 2024 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Plants have been used for therapeutic purposes since prehistoric times. Ancient Unani documents, Egyptian papyrus, and Chinese traditional medicines mention herbs and weeds as therapeutic sources (Giannenas et al., 2020). Weeds, often considered unwanted plants, can flourish unexpectedly and mostly impact crop production. (Lemessa and Wakjira, 2015). However, not all weeds are unnecessary; in rangeland areas, annual grasses classified as weeds in agricultural fields are valuable as cattle feed and bird shelters (Bailey et al., 2019). They also serve as animal food and shelter, mitigate land degradation as soil-binding agents, and are frequently used in medicine and nutrition (Gupta et al., 2021). In Pakistan, weeds cause annual losses of 6.3 billion PKR in maize and 4.9 billion PKR in rice crops (Ahmed, 2022; Qadir, 2015). Weeds reduce agricultural productivity by competing with crops for natural resources such as water, nutrients, space, and sunlight. Consequently, local communities target the diversity of medicinal weeds (Rana and Rana, 2016). Instead of eliminating these weeds, it is recommended to investigate their therapeutic and ethnobotanical values. Traditional medical systems remain widely used due to population growth, insufficient medication availability, high treatment costs, complications of some synthetic drugs, and host responses to commonly used drugs for infectious diseases (Thomford et al., 2015).

Medicinal plants are considered extremely healthy because not all weeds are toxic and useless (Ekor, 2014). Herbal medicines can be used by individuals of all ages and genders, as this is a universally applicable truth. Several indigenous medicinal plants can be found growing naturally or cultivated in specific locations in Pakistan (Khan et al., 2013). Hence, conducting research on the flora and educating the local population about its significance are crucial steps to ensure the conservation of medicinal flora.

Ethnomedicinal data also aids taxonomists, pharmacologists, ecologists, wildlife managers, and watershed managers in their efforts to refine the economic status of residents in remote areas (Martinez et al., 2019). Various techniques and methods are used to research medicinal herbs in a specific area or on a particular plant. The locals also think that weeds are reducing the yield of their crops, so they use toxic chemical treatments like herbicides to eradicate weeds permanently (Davis and Frisvold, 2017). However, due to their lack of awareness of the distinction between usual and therapeutic weeds, they treat them similarly, adversely affecting the continual existence of medicinal weeds. This study is the first systematic investigation of the medicinal plant flora in District Dir Upper. Its primary purpose was to explore and document this flora. Our study aims to differentiate between medicinal and non-medicinal weeds in the study area. The current study strives to inform the general population about the medicinal potential of weeds, as they are commonly perceived as unwanted plants in the affected area.

Materials and Methods

Study area description

District Upper Dir is one of the largest districts and is a famous tourist spot in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. Before the establishment of Pakistan, Dir was an independent state that lasted until a presidential declaration in 1969; later, in 1996, it was separated into two Districts (Dir Upper and Lower). Dir Upper encompasses 3699 square kilometers (126500 hec). The Dir Upper district had a total population of 946,421, according to the 2017 census (Muhammad et al., 2021). Figure 1 shows the study area’s overall boundaries and geographic status. They are almost entirely Sunni Muslims, mostly Yousafazai Pathan, famous for hospitality and nobleness. The district is far from the capital; hence, no economic or business zone exists. Agriculture and herding is a vital source of the economy.

 

Demographic profile

The researchers used a detailed questionnaire to collect information about the ethnomedicinal uses of plants from residents and Traditional Health Practitioners. Many locals were interviewed, including people of various occupations, ages, and gender. Most respondents were farmers or plant traders, indicating a rural lifestyle. The majority of urban respondents were educators and small business owners. When selecting informants, folk knowledge, location, occupation, and age were all considered. Priority was given to older people and natives. Most participants were between 45 and 68, as shown in Table 1. All of the participants had extensive knowledge and experience with medicinal plants. Several suggestions and recommendations were made, including local names, traditional uses, and ethnobotanical information. We followed the ‘International Society of Ethnobiology’s guidelines for conducting ourselves ethically during the interview (Grasser et al., 2016). To ensure clarity and simplicity, the survey was conducted in the area’s native language (Pashto).

 

Table 1: Demographic data of participants, informants.

Variable	Categories	No. of persons	Percentage
Informant category	Local health practitioners	10	8.33
	Local people	110	91.66
Gender
	Female	35	29.16
	Male	85	70.83
Age
	30-35	14	11.66
	35-40	13	10.83
	40-45	15	12.5
	45-50	22	18.33
	50-55	18	15
	55-60	20	16.66
	60>	18	15
Educational background
	Illiterate	28	23.33
	Completed five years of education	18	15
	Completed eight years of education	15	12.5
	Completed 10 years of education	16	13.33
	Completed 12 years of education	17	14.16
	Completed 12 years of education	14	11.66
	Graduate (higher education)	12	10

 

Results and Discussion

Ethnobotanical diversity

A total of 65 species belonging to 24 families, in which 54 species of angiosperms, 10 species of Tracheophytes, and one of Pteridophyta were recorded. The Poaceae was the dominant family, having 16 species, followed by Asteraceae with (10 species), Brassicaceae (3 species), Amaranthaceae (5 species), Asclepiadaceae (1 species), Aizoaceae (1 species), Caryophyllaceae (2 species), Chenopodiaceae (3 species), Cucurbitaceae (1 species), Convolvolaceae (3 species), Cyperaceae (1 species), Euphorbiaceae (3 species). We found 58 herbs and 5 shrubs as their parts used as shown in (Figure 2). Family name, taxan name, common name, part used, habitat and ethnobotanical information were noted, as shown in Table 2.

 

Disease categories

Out of all medicinal weeds, the most plants are used for digestive issues, followed by skin diseases. Cyperus rotundus L. and Convolvulus arvensis L. are used to treat diarrhea malaria, and as laxatives. The latex produced by the euphorbia species is used to treat skin conditions. Fever, infections, and several other conditions are treated by using various species. Various herbs and shrubs cure wounds and lessen inflammation (Figure 3). Euphorbia helioscopia L. is used to cure digestive problems, athlete’s foot, and constipation. Wounds were treated with Euphorbia prostrata (Zahra and Rahman, 2018). Indigenous people employ the 173 medicinal plants identified by (Sen and Samanta, 2015) for various functions, including treating humans and animals. It is essential to assess and further explore the mentioned plant species utilizing their medicinal and biological properties.

 

Table 2: Ethnobotanical information of medicinal weeds.

Family name

Taxan name

Common name

Part used

Habitat

Ethno botanical uses

Aizoaceae

Trianthema portulacastrum L.

Black weed

Whole

Herb

It’s used for analgesic treatment of blood disease and night blindness.

Achyranthes aspera L.

Prickly chaff plant

Leaves

Herb

It's used for cough malarial fever, asthma, hypertension, and diabetes

Amaranthus polygonoides L.

Chaurli

Whole

Herb

It's used for analgesic, antipyretic, anti cholesterlemic, asthma and venereal diseases

Alternanthera pungens Kunth

Gidar sag

Weed

Herb

Used as painkiller, for stomachache, swelling and nasopharyngeal infections

Amaranthus viridis L.

Churlyai

Leaves

Herb

Leaves are used cooked and vegetable.

Digera muricata (L.) Mart.

Jangli saag

Whole

Herb

Used are digestive disorder

Asteraceae

Calendula arvensis (Vaill.) L.

Ziar gully

Whole

Herb

It is used for skin problems

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Azghkay

Roots

Herb

A chewed as a remedy for toothache.

Cichorium intybus L.

Chicory

Leaves

Herb

It is used for appetite stimulant

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronqui st

Skha botay

Leaves

Herb

It's used for the treatment of malaria

Conyza canadens (L.) Cronquist

Dhnyabotay

Fruit seed

Herb

Leaves are cooked as vegetable, seed cooked in combination with rice.

Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.

Whole

Herb

Treatment of gastrointestinal disorder

Lactuca serriola L.

as sedative, hypnotic, cough suppressant, expectorant, purgative, diuretic, vasorelaxant, demulcent, antiseptic and antispasmodic.

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.

Shana Ghana

Seed

Herb

It's used for liver problem, hepatitis and prostatic cancer.

Sonchus oleraceous L.

Shwada botay

Leaves and roots

Herb

Treatment for general pain, headaches diarrhea and menstrual problem.

Xanthium strumarium L

Geshkay

Leaves and stem

Herb

Leaves are used antipyretic and respiratory disorder.

Asclepiadace ae

Calotropis procera (Aiton) R.Br.

Spalami

Roots

Shrub

Use against stomachache and diuretic, for muscular pain.

Brassicaceae

Brassica campestris L.

Sharsham

Whole plant

Herb

Fodder for cattle, leaves and flower use as vegetable. Seed oils can be used for body massage.

Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.

Whole

Herb

Used for lungs and malaria.

Raphanus raphanistrum L.

Wild radish

Leaves, seed and old roots

Herb

Used for asthma and chest complaints.

Caryophyllaceae

Cerastium glomeratum Thuill.

Leaves and shoot

Herb

It's used for relieve headaches.

Stellaria media (L.) Cirillo

Whole

Herb

It's used for itching skin. treat various gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, diarrhea, measles, jaundice, renal, digestive, reproductive and respiratory tracts inflammations

Table continued on next page................

Family name

Taxan name

Common name

Part used

Habitat

Ethno botanical uses

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album L.

Churlayai

Whole

Herb

Used for digestive, cardio tonic and anthelmintic.

Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Bathu

Tea

Herb

Treatment for lungs problem and infusion for inflammatory problem.

Chenopodium murale L.

Karund

Leaf

Herb

Used for digestive problems hair loss and depression.

Cucurbitaceae

Citrullus colocynths (L.) Schrad.

Anda botay

Seed,ro ot, fruit

Herb

Used as a digestive agent, for digestive disorder

Convolvolaceae

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Peer khatoony

Seed

Herbaceous

Used for laxative and cough and skin problem

Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br

Stem oil

Herb

Treatment for headache, epilepsy, leprosy and fever.

Ipomoea hederacea Jacq.

Seeds

Herb

Its use for blood purifier, anthelmintic and anti-inflammatory action.

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus L.

Della

Roots

Herb

It's used for diarrhea, malaria and stomach.

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Mandanu

Milky sap

Herb

Latex is used to treat burns and skin eruption.

Euphorbia hirta L.

Shawda boaty

Shoot

Herb

Latex is used against skin problems, shoot as fodder

Euporbia prostrata Aiton

Shawdy boaty

Latex, shoot

Herb

Shoots as used for against itching.

Equisetaceae

Equisetum arvense L.

Bandakay

Whole

Herb

Used against kidney stone, fever, small intestine and urinary inflammation

Fumariaceae

Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley

Karachay

Root and leaves

Herb

It's used for aches and pain, diarrhea fever, influenza.

Lamiaceae

Lamium amplexicaule L.

Leaves and shoot

Herb

It’s used for antispasmodic, astringent, and antiviral.

Nyctiginaceae

Boerhavia diffusa L.

Abi gul

Whole plant

Herb

Diuretic, wound healing

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis corniculata L.

Kahttamitha

Leaves

Herb

It's used for anti- inflammatory, digestive and anti-bacterial.

Papilionaceae

Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.

Jantar

Root and leaves.

Shrub

The root and leaves used medicinally for scorping, stings and abscesses. The leaves are used for sore throat.

Trifolium resupinatum L.

Barseen

Whole plant

Herb

Vicia sativa Guss.

Rodi

Leaves

Herb

Its provide palatable forage fresh and grain to livestock.

Plantaginaceae

Plantago lanceolata L.

Jabea

Seed

Herb

Treatment for skin, respiratory tract and insect bites.

Table continued on next page................

Family name

Taxan name

Common name

Part used

Habitat

Ethno botanical uses

Polygonaceae

Rumex dentatus L.

Jangli palak

Leaves and stem

Herb

It's used as an anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and anti-dermatitis medication.

Poaceae

Avena fatua L.

Jamadr

Seed

Herb

It's used as nerve stimulant

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Kabal

rhizome

Herb

It's used for cancer, cough, diarrhea and epilepsy.

Cenchrus ciliaris L.

Siti grass

Whole

Herb

It's used for body pain menstrual disorder and urinary infection.

Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf

Halfa grass

Seed, stem, leaves

Herb

Decoction of seed used to relive pain in the region of kidney; stem and leaves applied treatment of ulcer.

Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf

Murga ghaa

Rhizome

Herb

It's commonly used as a forage for livestock.

Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.)Koeler

Summer grass

Whole

Herb

Use as a fodder for cattle

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.

Wiregrass

Whole

Herb

Is used in antipyretic for all herbivore domestic species of animals.

Hordeum murinum L.

Barley

Seed

Herb

Seed cooked used as pinole. Only use when easier and better food were not available. The seed can be ground into a flour and used as a cereal and making bread, porridge.

Imperata cylindrica (L.)P. Beauv.

Cogongrass

Whole

Herb

It has medicinal properties can be used as a construction and fiber as an ornamental. Young inflorescence and shoot may be eaten cooked. Root contains starch and sugar and therefore are easy to chew.

Phalaris minor Retz.

Sittee boti

Whole

Herb

It’s used as a fodder or forage for livestock and birdseed, but it’s poisonous for some mammal and is a potential contaminant of seed crops.

Poa annua L.

Bluegrass

Whole

Herb

It’s used to treat unspecified medicinal disorder, as animals food and a medicine and has environmental uses

Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf

Foot grass

Whole

Herb

Fodder medicinal use of annual foot grass. Infusion of the ashes has been used in the treatment of heart palpitation.

Whole

Herb

Used as fodder

Rostraria cristata (L.) Tzvelev

Whole

Herb

Use as forage, nutritive value

Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Hole

Whole

Herb

Saccharum munja Roxb.

Roots

Herb

Saccharum munja is used to cure bleeding wounds.

Setaria pumila (Buse) B.K.Simon

Seeds

Herb

Consumed by millions of humans across the world, as well as forage and bird feed

Pteridaceae

Pteris vittata L.

Chines brake

Whole

Herb

Wound healing

Table continued on next page................

Family name

Taxan name

Common name

Part used

Habitat

Ethno botanical uses

Ranunculaceae

Ranunculus muricatus L.

Chambel

Fruits

Herb

Used in the treatment of intermittent fever and asthma

Solanaceae

Datura innoxia Mill.

Datura

Leaves and fruits

Shrub

Leaf as bandage to control bleeding, boiled seed used against asthma.

Solanum nigrum L.

Karmacho

Fruits

Herb

Fruits are used against joint pain and fever.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Khamazoo ra

Seed

Shrub

Seeds for wounds, to regulate body temperature

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris L.

Markondayai

Seed, flower

Herb

Seeds are used urinary infection

 

 

Forms and mode of utilisation

Out of 65 plants, 49 were medicinal and could treat respiratory, viral, and bacterial conditions, while 3 species were used as wild vegetables, as shown in (Figure 4). The eight plant species benefited as fodder for livestock to fulfill their nutritional value. In addition to their nutritional significance, the plant’s leaves and fruits are frequently consumed in cooking and were termed wild vegetables. The 1% is applied for ornamental purposes and the making of baskets and ropes (Nedelcheva et al., 2011). The area’s valuable commercial and ethnomedicinal vegetation is disappearing. The area’s vegetation is strongly advised to be used and conserved sustainably.

Part used

The parts of plant species, i.e., leaves, roots, stems, milky latex, and seeds, were introduced for medicinal purposes. Weeds in different forms were utilised to develop remedies such as extracts, powdered pastes, and decoctions. 17% of the leaves were utilized as a hemostatic agent to halt bleeding. Additionally, the seeds had therapeutic effects in treating injuries and regulating body temperature, as depicted in Figure 5. Poaceae was recorded as a dominant family, consumed as cow fodder as shown in Figure 6. The natives used aerial parts, bark, bulbs, cones, fruit, flowers, gum, husks, leaves, needles, nuts, rhizomes, roots, seeds, shoots, and the entire plant for various ethnobotanical purposes (Ur-Rahman et al., 2019).

 

 

The study revealed that weed species in District Dir Upper possess significant medicinal properties, contributing to traditional healthcare practices. These findings underscore the importance of further research and conservation efforts to protect these valuable plant resources. Such efforts can help preserve traditional knowledge and ensure the sustainable use of medicinal weeds.

The study findings emphasize the varied use of different plant components for medical purposes, resulting in the development of numerous medicines from these sources. Leaves were employed as a hemostatic agent, while seeds had medicinal properties in treating injuries and regulating body temperature. The family Poaceae was recognised as the most prevalent, mostly used as feed, as reported by the indigenous people, who employed a diverse array of plant components for ethnobotanical objectives, demonstrating their profound traditional wisdom. Considering the crucial functions these plant species fulfil in medicine, it is strongly advised to conduct further investigations on the utilisation and preservation of native weed flora.

The study found that digestive and skin illnesses are treated with the most medicinal weeds.

Xanthium strumarium leaves are used antipyretic and respiratory disorder (Mouhamad, 2022). Brassica campestris fodder for cattle, leaves and flower use as vegetable, seed oils can be used for body massage (Dilshad et al., 2008; Shankar et al., 2019). According to (Jahan et al., 2014) Eclipta alba species is used to treatment of gastrointestinal disorder (Jahan et al., 2014). Digera muricata are used digestive disorder (Manimekalai et al., 2020). Calotropis procera use against stomachache and diuretic, for muscular pain (Ghosh et al., 2010). Stellaria media it’s used for itching skin treat various gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, diarrhea, measles, jaundice, renal, digestive, reproductive and respiratory tracts inflammations (Gulshan et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2020).

Euphorbia species latex treat skin disorders. Euphorbia helioscopia L. and Euphorbia prostrata treat further ailments, while herbs and shrubs treat wounds and inflammation (Alsaffar et al., 2021; Salehi et al., 2019). Indigenous people use medicinal weeds from prior research to heal humans and animals, demonstrating the depth of traditional knowledge and the necessity to further study these valuable weed species (Kunwar et al., 2019; Uprety et al., 2012).

The leaves of Conyza canadens were cooked as vegetables, and the seeds were eaten with rice. The Poaceae family, which was predominated, can treat both acute and chronic illnesses like cancer, cough, diarrhea, and epilepsy (Ngoua-Meye-Misso et al., 2019). Diabetes, hepatitis, cardiac difficulties, diarrhea, dysentery, piles, constipation, premature ejaculation, cold/flu/fever, respiratory tract problems, digestive problems, ulcers, tumour, and headaches were only a few conditions treated using recorded medicinal plants (Kadir et al., 2014). According to Kumari et al., (2019) some herbs were used to treat various ailments such as bronchitis, TB, and asthmatic cough. Diarrhea, dyspepsia, persistent constipation, vomiting, ulcers, skin inflammations, and many male and female sexual diseases (Kumari et al., 2019). Aaproxemetly 70% of people consume weed species for primary healthcare, making them essential natural resources with the potential to yield safe drugs and treatments (Smith-Hall et al., 2012).

Conclusions and Recommendations

According to this survey, most people depended on agriculture for a living, and current services were deficient in the area. Despite some weeds potential therapeutic benefits, local farmers frequently used several techniques to eradicate weeds and ultimately increase crop productivity. Toxic sprays like herbicides and weedicides seriously endanger the medicinal weed flora. Some species of plants, like Taraxacum, Chenopodium, and Rumex, are versatile and need careful management and conservation care. A few things directly affected the local flora, mainly the medicinal weeds and the vegetation in universal. Both immediate conservation efforts and local public awareness campaigns are urgently needed. Seminars and conferences are a couple of examples of these programs. Future research should focus on using and conserving indigenous weed flora to preserve traditional knowledge and promote sustainable use of these medicinal plants. Such efforts are crucial for maintaining biodiversity and supporting local healthcare practices.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to the participants of the study area for their cooperation.

Novelty Statement

This study represents the first systematic investigation of the medicinal plant flora in District Dir Upper, a region that has received limited attention in the existing literature on medicinal weeds in Pakistan. By differentiating between medicinal and non-medicinal weeds in the study area, this research provides novel insights into the underexplored medicinal weeds diversity of this region, contributing to a better understanding of the ethnobotanical knowledge and potential therapeutic applications of the local flora. Through this comprehensive assessment of the medicinal weeds resources in District Dir Upper, the study fills an important gap in the scientific understanding of the medicinal plant wealth of this understudied area of Pakistan.

Author’s Contribution

All authors contributed equally in the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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