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Article · Volume 3, Issue 1, Pages 40–57, 21 December 2014 · Open Access

Ecotoxicology: A Review of Pesticides Induced Toxicity in Fish

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Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences
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21 December 2014
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From the article

  • This article concluded that pesticides can create a great economic loss by fish mortalities on one hand and on the other hand rendering them unfit for human consumption.
  • From a pesticides standpoint such pesticides should be avoided or should be used to minimum for protecting aquatic life.
  • On account of differences in susceptibility of different fish species to various pesticides and other pollutants, fish that are less susceptible and vulnerable to these chemicals and pollutants should be stocked in water bodies.
  • Beside this such species should be stocked that accumulate less quantity of pesticides, heavy metals and other pollutants.

Selected from the article's own text.

Abstract

Sana Ullah1, Mohammad Jalil Zorriehzahra2
1Fisheries and Aquaculture Lab, Department of Animal Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan; 2Aquatic Animal Health and Diseases Dept., Iranian Fisheries Research Organization (IFRO), Tehran, Iran.

*Correspondence | Sana Ullah, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan; Email: sunyuop@gmail.com

Abstract
Throughout the world pesticides are widely employed in agriculture sector in order to elevate crops’ yield with low labour and efforts. Pesticides exposure leads to toxicity in many non-target organisms, fish being one of the most prominent among these. Most of the time acute concentration of these pesticides leads to mortality while sub lethal concentration of these pesticides result in different lethal changes. These changes may be in behaviour of the exposed fish such as change in feeding behaviour, attack or avoiding behaviour and reproductive behaviour, or other types of alterations such as changes in histology (liver, kidneys, gills, muscles, brain, intestine), haematology (RBCs, WBCs or Plasma), anti-oxidant defence system (Glutathione reductase, Peroxidase, Catalase, Superoxide dismutase, Glutathione peroxidase, Glutathione-S-transferase etc.), changes in nutrient profile (Protein, Lipids, Carbohydrates, Moisture content and Ash etc.) and worth of the fish, hormonal or enzymatic alterations, oxygen consumption, and DNA damage or damage at genes level (genotoxicity). Different environmental agencies are working on this aspect and that’s why there are a large number of banned chemicals. Still these chemicals are available in markets. Certain newly synthesized pesticides (insecticides or fungicides etc.) and extensive use of these chemicals are always there to maximize the problem for aquatic organisms especially fish. This article focuses on the same aspect of ecotoxicology and reviews some major induced toxicological aspects of pesticides in fish including behavioural changes, histopathological damages, haematological alterations, biochemical changes, fluctuations in acetylcholinesterase activity, vicissitudes in protein contents, induced genotoxicity, alterations in feeding biology, oxygen consumption and oxygen stress all across the world.

Keywords | Pesticides, Toxicity, Fish, Behavioural changes, Biochemical changes, Histopathological
changes, Haematological changes, Molecular changes.

Introduction

In present era of green revolution the human population is being increasing swiftly. Forests have been utilized for abode construction, deteriorating environmental balance on one hand . On the other hand we are faced with the emerging and increasing problem of pollutants ; ; . These pollutants are domestic wastes, untreated or semi treated effluents from industries and different chemicals such as pesticides used in agriculture sector or safety measures ; ; ; ; . These pollutants are supplemented with different chemicals, pesticides, organic compounds and heavy metals etc. ; . These substances change water quality, which is home to many aquatic organisms . The changed water quality adversely affects these organisms and even leads to their mortalities in acute concentrations and severe exposure ; .

The potential harmful chemicals or substances such as heavy metals, pesticides and hydrocarbons are dumped either or released into the water bodies . When these pollutants flow into water bodies in higher concentration than permissible limits then these result in the form of heavy mortalities of all life form residing in those aquatic systems such as fish and shell fish etc. while in lower concentration these lead to bio accumulation of these pollutants and ultimately go through the food web to human beings ; ; . This issue is attention seeking and should be treated and focused properly and attentively in order to ensure safer fish consumption on priority basis ; .

Occurrence of Pesticides in Aquatic Systems

Presence of pesticides in aquatic systems may be by different ways, but is assessed by identifying three major routes, due to which it leads to water bodies ; . These routes are water column, organic substrates such as mosses, algae, leaf litter, vascular hydrophytes and branches, and inorganic substrate including materials from sediments varying in size . Standing water has higher concentration than lithic biotopes and water column while its quantity is negligible in sediments .

Determining Pesticide Contents

For finding pesticide contents in sediments, organic substrate, water and most important in animal or plants tissues is done chemically ; ; . The solid tissue of animals or plants and other solid materials are first homogenized and then extraction is done through acetone or hexane, then evaporated to a small volume, followed by cleaning and drying, and then finally analysed ; USGS, 1995; ; ; ; .

For determining the effects of pesticides such as acute toxic effect of these chemicals on aquatic organism biological methods are used, in situ bioassays ; ; ; ; . This assay is based on exposing the test animals to the field without disturbing the polluted sediments. After exposure survival percentage is determined. Sometimes when the water column is too deep or too fast, water cages are used for holding the fish in water column .

Indirect Effects of Pesticides to Fish

Pesticides greatly reduce food organisms’ abundance in aquatic bodies and eco system which is necessary for fish survival . By this mean it indirectly interrupts the fish food supply and change the habitat of water bodies ; . Besides this it can also make the fish more susceptible to predators by decreasing habitat suitability and changing their behaviour as well, which is a direct effect as a consequence of indirect effect ; ; . Results have shown that these indirect effects can be much more vital than the direct ones .

Direct Effects of Pesticides to Fish

Fish is directly affected by different pesticides . Pesticides induce different types of toxicity in fish, which these pesticides lead to, such as changes in fish behaviour ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; David et al., 2010; ; , haematological changes ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Saeedi et al., 2012; , histopathological disturbances ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; , enzymes alteration, genotoxicity ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; , biochemical modifications, endocrine system disruption ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; , nutrient profile disturbance ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; , variation in feeding biology ; ; ; , changes in antioxidant defence system ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; and alteration of acetylcholinesterase activity ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Different fish species are susceptible to these pesticides at different concentration. The changes in different body parts have been observed to be different than each other as well as in response to different pesticides. These effects have been observed in almost all parts of the fish body and systems. Some of these changes have been summarised under different subheadings in the following in order to make it more comprehensive.

Lethal Effects of Pesticides

Studies have shown that sub lethal amount of certain chemicals induced abortions . DDT (dose of 2 mg kg1 per seven days for five months) resulted in production of more mature ova than control group while mortality in sac fries was higher, when the gametes were from DDT treated parents as compared to control fish group. In 1996 the disastrous event of mortalities in various fish species such as deaths of 92,000 steel head, 19 resident rainbow trout, 114 juvenile coho salmon and thousands of non-game fish species in a branch of Rogue River by the name of Bear Creek was attributed to aquatic pollution mainly from chemicals such as pesticides. Methyl parathion caused 50%, 80% and 100% mortality of Catla catla even at the minor concentrations of 4.8ppm, 8ppm and 10ppm respectively . Dimethoate and Lambda-cyhalothrin showed to be lethal for Labeo rohita .

Table 1 is depicting a list of common pesticides along with their lethal concentrations for different fish species. However for further details handbook of Johnson and Finley (1980) can be consulted.

In contrast to lethality and mortalities of fish on account of lethal concentration, sublethal concentrations of these pesticides lead to subtle changes in biology of different fish and consequently effect their survival ; . Laboratory experiments have shown different effect of these pesticides on different biological aspects of these fish species. DDT has shown a disastrous effect of disturbing the reproduction of certain species while some species such as cutthroat goldfish have shown no change . The altered physiology and other changes that take place due to sublethal concentration of pesticides are divided into behavioural, histopathological, haematological and such other subheadings in the following.

Pesticide Induced Behavioural Changes in Fish

Pesticides have shown different alteration in behaviour of various fish species such as rendering fish sluggish and alter their swimming ability making them more susceptible to be preyed, reduce their ability to feed, maintain their position and defend their territories . Pesticides have also shown interrupting the schooling behaviour of fish due to dangling, erratic and irreg ular movements and disturbed swimming (Nagaraju et al., 2011). Disruption of schooling behaviour also renders the fish more susceptible and easily preyed. On account of stress due to pesticides, fish became stressed and immunocompromised, which make them more susceptible and vulnerable to diseases, secondary infections and pathogens ; . Methyl parathion resulted in increased movements of opercula, rapid jerk movement, equilibrium loss, body colour alterations, frequent surfacing, and elevated mucus secretion in Catla catla . Cypermethrin caused darting, erratic and irregular swimming movements, equilibrium loss, hyper excitability and sinking to bottom in Labeo rohita .

Table 1: LC50 value of some pesticides for different specie

S. No.

Name of the pesticides

Test organism

Duration of exposure

LC50 value

Reference

1

Acephate

Pimephales promelas

96 hrs

>1000 mg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

2

Alaclor

Salmo gairdneri

96 hrs

2.4 mg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

3

Akton

Channel catfish

96 hrs

400 µg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

4

BHC

Carassius auratus

96 hrs

348 µg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

5

Carbaryl

Salvelinus namaycush

96 hrs

690 µg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

6

Carbofuran

Perca flavescens

96 hrs

147 µg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

7

DDT

Salmo gairdneri

96 hrs

8.7 µg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

8

Endosulfan

Ictalarus punctatus

96 hrs

1.5 µg/L

Johnson and Finley, 1980

9

Diazinon

Channa punctatus

96 hrs

3.09 ppm

Rahman et al., 2002

10

Diazinon

Anabas testudineus

96 hrs

6.55 ppm

Rahman et al., 2002

11

Diazinon

Barbodes gonionotus

96 hrs

2.72 ppm

Rahman et al., 2002

12

Elsan

Channa punctatus

48 hrs

0.43 ppm

Rao et al, 1985

13

Permethrin

Cyprinus carpio

24 hrs

35 µg/L

Sial et al., 2009

14

Biosal

Cyprinus carpio

24 hrs

4.21 mg/L

Sial et al., 2009

15

Cypermethrin

Labeo rohita

96 hrs

4.0µ/L

Marigoudar et al., 2009

16

Dimethoate

Heteropneustes fossilis

96 hrs

2.98mg/L

Pandey et al., 2009

17

Methyl parathin

Catla catla

96 hrs

4.8ppm

Illyazhanan et al., 2010

18

λCyhalothrin

Danio rerio

96 hrs

0.119µ/L

Ansari and Ahmad, 2010

19

Cypermethrin

Colisa fasciatus

96 hrs

0.02mg/L

Singh et al., 2010

20

Metasystox

Nemacheilus botia

96 hrs

7.018 ppm

Nikam et al., 2011

21

Malathion

Labeo rohita

96 hrs

15mg/L

Thenmozhi et al., 2011

22

Rogor

Puntius stigma

96 hrs

7.1ppm

Bhandare et al., 2011

23

Endosulfan

Channa striatus

96 hrs

0.0035ppm

Ganeshwade et al., 2012

24

Malathion

Heteropneustes fossilis

96 hrs

0.98ppm

Deka and Mahanta, 2012

25

Termifos

Clarias gariepinus

96 hrs

0.86 mg/L

Nwani et al., 2013

26

Endosulfan

Catla catla

96 hrs

0.98 µg/L

Ilyas and Javed, 2013

27

Endosulfan

Cirrhinus mrigala

96 hrs

1.06 µg/L

Ilyas and Javed, 2013

28

Endosulfan

Labeo rohita

96 hrs

2.15 µg/L

Ilyas and Javed, 2013

29

Dimethoate

Labeo rohita

96 hrs

24.55 µg/L

Dey and Saha, 2014

30

λ Cyhalothrin

Labeo rohita

96 hrs

0.7 µg/L

Dey and Saha, 2014

31

Karate

Cyprinus carpio

96 hrs

0.160 µg/L

Bibi et al., 2014

Pesticides also alter the migratory behaviour of migratory fish , thus result in disturbing their life cycle such as it can disturb the ability of salmonid fish to transit from fresh water to sea water. However this phenomenon is seeking further researchers to place particular emphasis on critical period of transition, which occurs in estuaries. Yet studies have shown that adult salmon use to circumvent pollutants and contaminated areas during their migration, altering their migratory pattern, which result in postponement of spawning . Cypermethrin resulted in jumping, increased surface activity, balance loss, increased air gulping, equilibrium loss, abrupt swimming, sluggishness, motionlessness, adopting vertical positions and internal haemorrhage in Tor putitora . Sodium cyanide induced certain behavioural changes such as hypexcitability, darting and erratic movements, and imbalance swimming, in Oreochromis mossambicus, Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo rohita, and Cyprinus carpio (David et al., 2010). There are many other studies confirming behavioural changes in fish due to pesticides ; ; Prashant et al., 2011; .

Pesticide Induced Histopathological Changes in Fish

Histopathological changes due to various pesticides have been extensively studied in different fish species. These changes have been traced in liver, gills, blood vessels, brain, kidneys and muscles of the studied fishes. The changes documented are quite various such as partial loss of liver plate radial orientation, cytoplasmic granularity and shrinkage of liver cell mass in liver cells; pycnotic alteration of cell nuclei, atrophy and cytoplasm vocalization in kidneys; gill lamellae and filaments have shown precipitated masses that plugged to the central capillaries and in large blood vessels various changes have also been observed such as alteration in morphology, haematocrit levels and blood cells’ quantity .

Histopathological changes were also observed in ovary when expose to Malathion altered ovigerous lamellae, follicular cell degeneration, atrectic oocytes increment, clumping of cytoplasm, ruptured follicular epithelial lining and nuclear materials’ shrinkage, which was attributed to endocrine and hormonal imbalance, while carofuran caused degeneration of connective tissues, follicular walls and vacuolization in the ooplasm during stage second and third ; ; and diazinon exposure resulted in different alterations in ovaries such as primary follicles adhesion, atretic oocytes increment, cytoplasmic retraction in oocyte II, damages to oocyte IV, vitellogenic membrane destruction, increased intrafollicular spaces, cytoplasmic degeneration, cytoplasmic necrosis, karyoplasm extrusion and vacuolated cytoplasm . Malathion also resulted in changes in histology of liver, ovary and kidney in Heteropneustes fossilis . Sodium cyanide also resulted in histopathological changes such as variation in histoarchitecture of kidneys including necrosis, degeneration of glomerulus, lymphocytes infilteration, cytoplasmic vacuolation, blood congestion, damage to collecting duct and size change of tubular lumen, in Cyprinus carpio after exposure to sub lethal concentration .

Certain other studies also support the toxic effects of pesticides in various tissues and organs of different fish, such as atrazine to Labeo rohita , Cypermethrin to Tor putitora , Corydoras melanistius , dimethoate to Putius ticto , hostathion to Channa gachua , malathion to Heteropnuestes fossilis and many other such studies support these histopathological changes ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; .

Pesticide Induced Haematological Changes in Fish

Different conducted studies showed lethal effect of various pesticides including Aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, BHC, chlordane, cypermethrin, permethrin, sulfane, endosulfane, karate, delmethrin etc. on haematology such as characteristics of blood and histological changes in WBCs and RBCs, haemoglobin contents and packed cell volume of different fish species such as Cyprinus carpio and Puntius ticto , Tor putitora , Oreochromis mossambicus due to potassium chlorate and potassium dichromate and lead , Onchorhynchus mykiss (Saeedi et al., 2012) and Cyprinus carpio in response to Diazinon, Mystus keletius to methyl parathion , Channa punctatus and Ophiocephalus punctatus to endosulfan, Labeo rohita to Cypermethrin , chlordane caused chronic disfunction of hemopoietic system in Labeo rohita , and dimecron (Anandkumar et al., 2001) and endosulfan , 2004) to Heteropneustes fossilis and Channa punctatus and furadon to Labeo rohita .

There are many other studies conducted showing haematological changes taken place due to different pesticides ; ; ; .

Pesticide Induced Toxic Effects in Acetylcholinesterase of Fish

AChE (AChE) activity is very much sensitive for carbamate pesticides and organo phosphates as compare to other types of pesticides and contaminants . Various studies have been shown that inhibition of this enzyme has been associated with the effects and exposure of fish with other contaminants such as crude oil addition to brain homogenate inhibited AchE activity . AChE activity was inhibited by 40% in muscles of flounder on account of abode in polluted sites ; heavy metals and pesticides also reduced AChE activity in brain by 40% in three polluted sites in Italy . AChE activity in Labeo rohita was inhibited by Cypermethrin significantly, brain being the most altered followed by muscles, gills and liver tissues .

By affecting the AChE activity in fish, the swimming capability and performance of fish is ultimately reduced and disturbed which can attribute to more harmful consequences ; . Significant change in AChE activity has been observed in different tissue of different species after exposure to single and multiple expositions such as tilapia to chlorpyrifos, carbosulfan ; . Cypermethrin resulted in AChE inactivation which led to accumulation of acetylcholine within the cholinergic synapses, which ultimately led to hyperstimulation in Labeo rohita ; . Cypermethrin induced alterations in AChE, succinic dehydrogenase and lactic dehydrogenase activities in nervous tissue of Colisa fasciatus . Glyposate induced AChE change in Leporinus obtusidens and Rhamdia quelen while karate decreased AChE activity in Cyprinus carpio .

Pesticide Induced Biochemical Changes/ Oxidative Stress in Fish

Various studies have shown devastating effects of pesticides in various biochemical activities . These changes in antioxidants systems of fish are often tissue specific such as these changes have been traced in brain, gills, muscles, kidneys, lungs and viscera of different fish and have shown varying results in different organs and different fish species such as peroxidase activities was found higher in brain, viscera, gills, and muscles of tilapia but gills was the organ received highest disturbance in peroxidase . Similarly changes in lipid peroxidase have been observed on account of different pesticides as well as environmental pollutants.

Studies on Labeo rohita by applying organophosphates in sub-lethal concentration led to disturbance in various enzymes such as glutaminases including phosphate activated glutaminase and L-Keto acid activated glutaminase in brain tissue, which were associated with the involvement of these brain regions with metabolism . Endosulfan led to reduction in the activities of citrate synthase and glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase in skeletal muscle, liver and brain, while lactate dehydrogenase activity in brain of Clarius batrachus . Malathion resulted in disturbed Catalase and Glutathione-S-transferase activities in gills, liver and muscles of Labeo rohita and also induced biochemical changes in Clarias batrachus .

Cypermethrin induced very much change in Catalase, Glutathion Reductase, Peroxidase, and Lipid peroxidase in brain, liver, gills and muscle tissues of Tor putitora while catalase, hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde, protein carbonyls and free amino acid in liver of Labeo rohita . Sodium cyanide caused steady decreased with time in different enzymatic activities such as succinate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, phosphorylase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, acid phosphates and alkaline phosphatase in different tissues such as liver, gills and muscles of Labeo rohita and catalase in Cyprinus carpio . Many other studies are depicting pesticides as inducer of anomalous biochemical changes in fish ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Shankar et al., 2005; ; ; ; .

Pesticide Induced Molecular Changes in Fish (Genotoxicity)

Chromosomal aberrations have been observed after exposure of fish species to different chemicals. Exposure of Channa punctatus to Dichlorvos (0.01 ppm chromosome) caused chromatid gaps, centromeric gaps, attenuation, chromatid breaks, pycnosis, extra fragments, and stubbed arm in kidney cells while exposure of the same species to fenvalerate caused chromatid separation, chromatid break, deletion, fragments, gaps, and ring type chromosomes . The toxicity of different pesticides has been associated with changes in replication of DNA and DNA aberration that leads to mutation , and hyperproliferation of cells due to local irritation ; ; . Interestingly longer exposure was associated with lower frequency of DNA aberrations. Cypermethrin caused changes in nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) in gonadal tissue of Colisa fasciatus . Profenofos caused significant change in tail of marine fish, Therpon jarbua .

In fish DNA repairing took place at a much lower speed than in mammals ; , which render fish as sentinel organism as for as bio-monitoring studies are concern ; . Different species of fish have been employed for analysing erukaryotic gentoxicity as well as for mutagenicity tests. These included comet assay ; , chromosal aberration test ; , micronucleus assay ; ; , DNA repair synthesis , and sister chromatid exchange test ; .

Various studies conducted have shown that pollutants cause carcinogenesis ; ; ; , teratogenesis, clastogenesis and mutation in fish which ultimately lead to reduced growth, malignancies, reduction in survival of fish in early life stages as well as adult stage, abnormal development and different deformities of body organs . There is rich documented literature witnessing research on molecular level of different fish species showing ill effects of pesticides on genes and DNA levels ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; .

Pesticide Induced Changes in Protein Contents of Fish

Experiments have shown higher effect of pesticides in protein contents, in different tissue such as gills, liver, blood, intestine and muscle of various fish species, such as nickel caused decrease in protein level of Heteropneustes fossilis , nickel chloride caused appreciable decrease in gonads, liver and muscles of Anabus testudineus , phenyl mercuric acetate caused reduction of protein level in muscles and liver of Channa punctatus while the same species showed low protein level when exposed to oleandrin and arsenic . Nuwan decreaded protein contents in liver of Mystus vittatus (Tazeen et al., 1996), copper in Lepidocephalicthus thermails, lead acetate in Cirrhinus mrigala , endosulfan in Cyprinus carpio , cypermethrin in Labeo rohita , petroleum oil in Heteropneustes fossilis , and lead, mercury and cadmium in Channa straiatus .

Cypermethrin exposure resulted in significant decrease in protein contents in Tor putitora and Colisa fasciatus . Malathion decreased protein contents in Labeo rohita and Clarias batrachus . Thiamethoxan affected liver total protein of Oreochromis niloticus , thiodon significantly affected liver total protein in Clarias gariepinus while dichlorvos showed significant impact in total protein, tissue glycogen and albumen content in muscles, liver and kidneys of Oreochromis mossambicus . A pesticidal mixture used againat Clarias batrachus induced changes in protein content , karate decreased protein contents in Cyprinus carpio while monocrotrophs decreased protein, lipid and carbohydrate content in various tissues of Labeo rohita . Also, in a complex pathway, dioxin interacts with DNA to alter how genes control protein synthesis, for example the protein called vitellogenin which is involved in egg development .

Pesticides induced changes in Immune Systems and Endocrine Disruptors

Pesticides have shown disruption of immune system in fish ; . Studies have shown serious ill impact of pesticides on immune system, which results in disease initiation and eventually can lead to death ; . Fish are also vulnerable to endocrine disrupting impacts during early life stages or stages of development ;; . Pesticides also act as sex hormones’ blockers, which leads to anomalous and atypical sexual development, irregular sex ratios, males’ feminization and disturbed mating behaviour. Susceptible fish reproductive behaviour depicts its vulnerability by different pollutants such as pesticides . It can also alter other hormonal processes of fish like development of bones and proper thyroid functioning . Dimethoate and Lambda-cyhalothrin showed lethal effect on Thyroid hormone of Labeo rohita . Several studies have shown that environmental chemicals disturb levels plasma thyroid hormone . Disturb plasma thyroid hormone level leads to thyroid dysfunction in fishes .

Pesticides Induced Changes in Oxygen Consumption

Different studies conducted put forth the results of reduction or increase in oxygen consumption by various fish species when exposed to different pesticides. These fish showed these changes with different time and duration of exposure such as Dimethoate and lead induced toxic changes in oxygen consumption in Oreochromis mossambicus. Dimethyl parathion disturbed the oxygen consumption in Labeo rohita , DDT induced disturbance in Lepidocephalichthys thermalis , endrin in Lepomis machrochirus and different pesticides in Puntius ticto .

Pesticides Induced Changes in Larvivorous Potential of Fish

Organophosphorous pesticides, on account of high insecticidal property, lesser persistence, less toxic to mammals and rapidly biodegradable, are frequently used but unfortunately these also affects non-target life forms both indirectly as well as directly including larvivorous fish species .

Pesticides have been concluded as an agent of alteration in fish physiology. Different studies conducted have shown pesticides lowering the larvivorous potential of different fish species. Hostathion (Triazophos) and Kitazin (Iprobenfos) lowered down the larvivorous capability of Oryzias carnaticus. The larvivorous potential of Oryzias carnaticus decreased by 3.1 and 4.1 times on day first and day second respectively for Hostathion treated group than control while it lowered down 4.6 and 4.8 times for Kitazin treated group as compared to control group . Instead of these pesticides, larvivorous fish can be used for biological control of vector mosquito . It is safer and environmental friendly approach instead of using these pesticides which often lead to higher mortalities and reduction of fish population .

Dioxin as typical model for side effects of Pesticides on Fish Health

Fish show a wide range of sensitivity to some chemical substances such as dioxin. Trout are very sensitive to the effects of dioxin. These fish are not only being used to tell scientists about what is happening in the environment but as models of what may happen to humans exposed to these chemicals. In experimental study in University of Wisconsin, researchers have injected very small quantities of dioxin and dioxin-like chemicals into newly fertilized lake trout eggs. Dramatic changes in the development of the embryo have been observed in this fish . Very small amounts of dioxin into lake trout embryos causes a condition called “blue-sac disease” in which there is a disruption of both the yolk sac and blood vessels. Normal embryos of lake trout have large yolk sacs and good blood vessel formation. Rate of mortality could be reached in 25% in affected farms . But when fry mortality syndrome occurred after stage of yolk sac absorption, above mentioned disorder signs could not be observed.

Furthermore, Dioxins are highly toxic to both freshwater and marine fish, particularly to early life stage fish, although the saltwater fish species tested so far are more tolerant to TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) exposure than most freshwater species Previously exposed saltwater fish are also more tolerant than un-adapted fish. Lake trout were the most sensitive to TCDD, the most toxic form of dioxin. discovered that TCDD levels in lake trout eggs as low as 30 parts per trillion caused observable increases in yolk-sac fry mortality, and 100 percent mortality occurred at TCDD levels above 100 parts per trillion. The yolk-sac fry die from an accumulation of excess fluid in the yolk-sac (yolk sac edema) and around the heart (pericardial edema), obstructed blood flow (ischemia), hemorrhages, and a deformed skull (craniofacial malformations) conditions resembling blue sac disease. Typical toxic responses in early-stage fish following exposure to TCDD include yolk sac edema, hemorrhaging, arrested development, and head and spinal deformities, and in older fish include lesions, fin necrosis and death.

Dioxin and dioxin-like chemicals such as PCBs and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are sometimes called xenoestrogens. This means that these chemicals can either mimic or disrupt the function of the sex hormone estrogen. They may also affect development and the immune system or cause cancer. Dioxin has its toxic effect at the level of the cell . In a complex pathway, dioxin interacts with DNA to alter how genes control protein synthesis, for example the protein called vitellogenin which is involved in egg development .

Conclusion

This article concluded that pesticides can create a great economic loss by fish mortalities on one hand and on the other hand rendering them unfit for human consumption. If consumed, these fish can cause health hazard situation for those who utilized these fish. From a health perspective this article depicts that one should take necessary precautionary measure when selecting fish. From a pesticides standpoint such pesticides should be avoided or should be used to minimum for protecting aquatic life. Researchers all across the globe have worked on the toxic effects of pesticides in fish such as behavioural change, Histopathological alterations, haematological and biochemical change, AChE activities inhibition, decrease in protein and lipid contents, change in life cycle, carcinogenesis, mutagenic changes, physiological changes and change in reproductive process. On account of differences in susceptibility of different fish species to various pesticides and other pollutants, fish that are less susceptible and vulnerable to these chemicals and pollutants should be stocked in water bodies. Beside this such species should be stocked that accumulate less quantity of pesticides, heavy metals and other pollutants. Further studies and research regarding new introduced pesticides and other chemicals should be carried out in both natural as well as laboratories. This will be helpful in documenting the toxic effects of these contaminants and on the basis of these experiments, nontoxic or less toxic as well as environmental friendly chemicals can be employed.

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