Identification and Morphological Characteristics of Weed Flora Associated with Wheat, Rice and Maize crops in Batkhela, District Malakand, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Plant ecology deals with the effect of environmental factors on the distribution and abundance of plant species (Ain et al., 2026). Plants have critical relationship with its environment. Their adoptability, growth and interaction are submissive to area they dwell. Plants depends on all conditions for existence in environment (Ali et al., 2026). The physiological and morphological adaptation is important for plants species. The interrelations between plant physiology and synecology are very close (Hassan et al., 2024). Ecological features of plants change with altitude, edaphic, climatic and anthropogenic factors (Ullah et al., 2022).

A soil all over the world is basic contributor for continuous existence of life. Soil is the combination of organic and inorganic materials. Soil provides medium for the germination, growth and development of plants species (Anwar et al., 2021). The physicochemical features of soil include soil texture, color, structure, pH, electrical conductivity, TSS and NPK (Nathalie et al., 2020). Plants survival has direct relation to soil it anchors, the constituents it possesses, aeration it favors, water it retains and microorganism it hosts. So, study of plant is meaning less without systematic study of soil (Haq et al., 2024).

Ecological characteristics of weed will help to understand the prevailing environmental condition of the area and better future planning for sustainable and improved weed control practices (Ahmad et al., 2020). The weed flora of the area is unexplored previously and this is the first ever study on weed diversity in this area. Study was conducted in Batkhela, District Malakand, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The areas have a subtropical climate and supports irrigated cereal cultivation, including wheat, rice and maize. Its diverse ecological conditions make it suitable for investigate weed flora and their morphological characteristics’ (GOP, 1998). Therefore, the present study was conducted with the objective to document the weed flora and their association with wheat, rice and maize crops in the study area (Ning et al., 2020).

Crops cultivated localities with altitudinal variation and topography were selected for the collection of plants. Various localities include Dheri, Julagram, Khar, Matkanai, Trai and Totakan were visited. Field surveys were conducted during 2017-2018 covering both Rabi and Kharif seasons. A total of 10-15 field visits were made to each locality at vegetative, flowering and harvesting stages of the crops. In each crop field weeds were collected using random quadrate sampling method. Five quadrates of 1m ×1m were randomly placed in each wheat, rice and maize field. Weeds growing within the crop field and within 5m radius of crops plants were recorded as associated with wheat, rice and maize crops. The specimens after drying were mounted on herbarium sheets and identified following Flora of Pakistan and available literature on weed plants (Nasir and Ali, 1970-1989; Ali and Nasir, 1989-1991; Ali and Qaiser 1993-2017). The identified plants were submitted in the herbarium Centre of Plant Biodiversity University of Peshawar for future research.

The biological spectra including life forms and leaf size were known after Raunkiaer (1934), Hussain (1989), Shah et al. (2021), Khan et al. (2022) and Ain et al. (2026). Phenologically, weeds were classified into S1= Vegetative/ Pre-reproductive, S2= Reproductive and S3= post-reproductive stages. Leaf shapes, spinniness NS = Non spiny, SP = Spiny and biogeographic status of weed were also recorded.

The Study revealed 131 plant species were typical weed in the research area. 97 plants were weed of wheat crop, 41 species were weed in maize crop and 39 species were found in rice crop.

The plant species belonged to 43 families and 106 genera (Table 1, Figure 7).

A total of 3 Pteridophytic species were recorded. Family Equistaceae was represented by 1 species and family Pteridaceae was represented by 2 species. Angiosperms were represented by 128 species in which dicots had 112 species (85.4%) and monocots were represented by 16 species (13.7%). The leading monocot family was Poaceae with 15 (11.5%) species, followed by Asparagaceae, Cyperaceae and Iridaceae with 1 (0.76%) species each. Among dicots, Asteraceae was the dominant dicot family with nineteen (14.5%) species, followed by Amaranthaceae, Lamiaceae. Papilionaceae (Sub family of Fabaceae) and Polygonaceae each with 8 (6.1%) species, Chenopodiaceae and Euphorbiaceae had 5 (3.8%) species. Apiaceae, Brassicaceae and Solanaceae possessed 4 (3%) species each, Boraginaceae and Convolvulaceae were represented by 3 (2.2%) species. Acanthaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Malvaceae,

Table 1: Ecological characteristics and biogeographic status of weeds of cereal crops in batkhela, pakistan.

Keys: Therophyte= Th, Geophyte= G, Hemicryptophyte= H, Chamaephyte=Ch, Mesophyte= Mes, Microphyll=Mic, Nanophyll=N, Macrophyll= Mac, Leptophyll= L, Smooth= S, Denta

Plantaginaceae, Urticaceae, Violaceae, Verbenaceae, Zygophyllaceae had 2 species each, Commelinaceae, Cannabaceae, Capparidaceae, Cuscutaceae, Lythraceae, Menisperaceae, Cucurbitaceae. Oenetheraceae, Fumariaceae, Oxalidaceae, Geraniaceae. Papaveraceae, Pontederiaceae, Portulacaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rubiaceae and Scrophulariaceae had 1 species each (0.76%).

Total 97 plant species were found as weed in wheat crop (Table 1). The leading family was Asteraceae with 19 species (14.5%), Poaceae was represented by 9 species (6.8%), Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae each with 7 (5.34%) species. Boraginaceae and Amaranthaceae was had 6 species each Chenopodiaceae and Euphorbiaceae each possessed 5 species each, Papilionaceae (Sub family of Fabaceae) contained 4 species. Apiaceae, Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Acanthaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Malvaceae, Plantaginaceae, Urticaceae, Violaceae, Verbenaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Cannabaceae, Capparidaceae, Commelinaceae, Cuscutaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Fumariaceae, Gereniaceae, Lytheraceae, Menisperaceae, Oenetheraceae, Oxalidaceae, Papaveraceae, Pontederiaceae, Portulacaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rubiaceae and Scrophulariaceae had less than 3 species.

Table 2: Summary of ecological characteristics of weeds of cereal crops in Batkhela, Pakistan.

41 species belonging to 22 families and 37 genera were present in maize field (Table 2). In maize leading families were Poaceae 7 (5.34%) species, Asteraceae 6 (4.58%) species, Chenopodiaceae and Convolvulaceae with 3 (2.29%) species.

39 species were found in rice field belonging to 21 families and 35 genera (Table 1). In rice crop the leading family was Asteraceae with 6 (4.5%) species followed by Papilionaceae (Sub family of Fabaceae) 4 (3.05%) species and poaceae was 3 (2.29) number of species. Other families had a smaller number of species.

Biological spectra indicated that the major life form class among the weed flora was therophytes with 102 species (77.8%) followed by geophytes with 18 (13.74%) species, Hemicryptophytes were 9 (7.63%) species and 2 (1.52%) species were Chamaephytes (Table 2; Figure 1). Most common category regarding leaf size class was mesophyll with 51 (38.93%) species followed by microphyll with 37 (28.24%) species, Nanophyll were next to it with 27 (19.84%) species, Macrophyll had 9 (6.87%) species and Leptophyll consisted of 6 (5.34%) species and Aphyllous had 1 species (0.76%) (Table 2; Figure 2). Regarding biogeographic status 86 (65.6%) species were indigenous to study area and 45 (34.3%) were exotic (Table 2; Figure 3). During the study 95 (72.5%) plants were found at reproductive stage S2, 27 (20.61%) at pre-reproductive stage S1 and 9 (6.8%) were at post reproductive stage S3 (Table 2; Figure 4). In leaf shapes, 79 (60.3%) species had simple leaves, 52 (39.6%) possessed were dentate leaves (Table 2; Figure 5). In spinniness 114 (87.02%) were non spiny NS and 17 (12.98%) species were spiny (Table 2; Figure 6).

Weed plants are reported to compete with crops for resources for space, water and nutrients Ehtesham-Ul-Haq et al. (2025). They grow in wild in crop fields Tahir et al. (2022). The weed possesses great competing quality with crops in term of adoptability and growth rate. Further studies are needed to assess allelopathic effects and nativity impact Luqman et al. (2022). During this study on ecological evaluation and management of weed diversity in cereal crops of the study area it was revealed 131 plant species were typical weed in the research area. 97 plants were weed of wheat crop, 41 species were weed in maize crop and 39 species were found in rice crop.

In our study 97 plant species were found as weed in wheat crop and 39 species were found in rice field belonging to 21 families and 35 genera. Similarly, 41 species belonging 22 families and 37 genera were present in maize field Ali et al. (2026). These weeds were found to be in competition with cultivated crops for space, water and nutrients Ain et al. (2026). Ahmad et al. (2020) reported role of edaphic variables. Our study is quite similar to previous studies conducted

Table 3: Distribution of weeds plants growing in cereal crops in Batkhela, Pakistan

in other areas Mandal et al. (2019). Some notable research work including (Ali and Qaiser, 2009; Khan et al., 2022 and Haq et al., 2024) agree with our findings.

The present study agrees with Shah et al. (2021) who described the ecological parameters of weed in wheat crop fields of Chitral. They reported life-forms including Therophytes, Geophytes and Hemicryptophytes. Similarly, in leaf-sizes Mesophyllous, Microphyllous, Macrophyllous, Nanophyllous, Megaphyllous, Leptophyllous and Aphyllous species were reported. Same results were also presented by Naila et al. (2017). Shah et al. (2021) who reported most common families were Asteraceae, Polygonaceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Papilionaceae (Sub family of Fabaceae) and Poaceae in their study discussed by Khan et al (2018) and showed that Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae and Ra Ranunculaceae as dominant families of weeds. Khan et al. (2017) showed Emex spinosus, Cannabis sativa, Oxalis corniculata. Chenopodium and Euphorbia helioscopia were most common weeds. These species also reported in the present research. Ahamd et al. (2022) elaborated that the edaphic variables had higher concentration of Potassium, organic matter and sandy nature of soil which is in favour of the present research. Invasiveness of weed was studied by El–Metwally et al. (2022) and Abidin et al., (2021) with similar results. Weed species composition and distribution pattern in the maize crop under the influence of edaphic factors and farming practices was studied by Naeem et al. (2021) and reported similar results. Study of Shahzad et al. (2021) showed elemental composition in leaf, stem and roots of weed with similar outcome.

The present research reported 131 weeds species distributed in cereal crops of the study area. Therophytes followed by geophytes and hemicryptophytes were dominant while Mesophyllous, Microphyllous and Nanophylolus leaf sizes were more prevalent. Wheat showed the highest weed diversity (97 spp.) followed by maize (41 spp.) and rice (39 spp.) crops. The dominance of Asteraceae and Poaceae families is consisted with regional flora. The present research provides baseline data on weed diversity in cereal crops of the study area. Dominance of therophytes and mesophylls indicates adaptation to the local climates. Future studies focusing on management trials and ethnobotanical uses of these species are recommended.

The author would like to thank the Department Centre of Plant Biodiversity, University of Peshawar.

This study provides a comprehensive field-based assessment of weed flora associated with wheat, rice and maize crops in Batkhela, District Malakand, documenting 131 weed species and their taxonomic, life-form, morphological and ecological characteristics. It also identifies crop-associated weed patterns and dominant life forms, providing baseline information for integrated weed management and conservation of indigenous flora.

Bibi Mayam: Field surway, data colletion, identification of weed species, morpological characterization, ecological evaluation, data analysis, and manuscript preparation/writing.

Syed Mukarram Shah: Supervision, research guidance, review and critical revision of the manuscript.

Funding

The author received no specific funding for this project

The authors declare that no generative AI and AI assisted technology was used in the creation of this manuscript.

The author declares no conflict of interest.