Prevalence, Intensity and Risk Factors of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Cattle in The Northwest Region of Cameroon

Cattle production in Cameroon is a major livestock enterprise and contributes to the country’s economic development, food and nutrition security, and poverty reduction (Ebangui et al., 2001; FAO, 2000; MINEPIA, 2014, 2020). There are over 8 million cattle heads, with an annual growth rate of 1.97% and contributes about 16% of the national agricultural production and 61% of the national demand for meat in Cameroon (Ebangui et al., 2001). It also serves as the main source of exclusive livelihoods for over 35% of the rural communities in the country (MINEPIA, 2000, 2014). Despite the vital importance of cattle husbandry, several challenges prevent breeders from benefiting on this enormous resource due to constraints. The challenges include poor nutrition, inadequate access to portable water, poor production systems, reproductive inefficiency, finance, management constraints, inadequate extension services, insufficient veterinary care, and disease being the most important (FAO, 2000; Awa and Achukwi, 2009; Tadesse and Mengistie, 2016). Gastrointestinal (GI) parasites are among the most important diseases that limit ruminant production globally (Mouiche et al., 2023; Ng’ang’a et al., 2004; Rafiullah et al., 2011; Vlassoff and Leathwick, 2001). Losses due to infection by GI parasites occur through mortalities, reduced production due to sub-clinical parasitism, and direct cost associated with control measures (Atanga et al., 2024; Biffa et al., 2006; Takang et al., 2020; Tembely et al., 1997). GI parasites cause considerable economic losses, reduced weight gain, digestive disturbance, lowered production, impaired reproductive performance, condemnation of affected organs and mortality in infected animals (Atanga et al., 2024; FAO, 2000; Schutz et al., 2012; Takang et al., 2020; Verocai et al., 2020).

GI parasite infections have been associated with several factors such as host age, sex, physiological status, body condition, breed, parasite species involved, and other epidemiological patterns such as husbandry practices and climate variables that determine the degree of infection (Abass et al., 2020; Adedipe et al., 2014; Ebene et al., 2022; Hamid et al., 2016; Luka et al., 2018a; Menkir et al., 2007; Takeet et al., 2016; Tembely, 1998). Environmental conditions such as temperature, rainfall and humidity provide suitable conditions for the development of nematode eggs and free-living stages (Hansen and Perry, 1994; Rossanigo and Gruner, 1995; Tembely et al., 1997; Urquhart et al., 1996). The contribution of GI parasitism to morbidity, mortality and production losses in cattle in Cameroon is not known. However, prevalence range of less than 10% to over 80% of GI parasites such as nematodes (Haemonchus spp., Oesophagostomum spp., Strongloides spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Bunostomum spp., Chabertia and Trichuris spp.); trematodes (Fasciola, Paraphistomum, Dicrocoelium spp.); cestodes (Monezia spp.); and protozoa (Eimeria spp.) have been reported in domestic ruminants in different parts of Cameroon (Abass et al., 2020; Atanga et al., 2019, 2024; Chollet et al., 1994; Ebene et al., 2022; Mengoue et al., 2025; Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012; Ntonifor et al., 2013; Takang et al., 2020; Takeet et al., 2016). The agro-ecological zones of Cameroon provide suitable environments for various livestock production. Domestic ruminants (Cattle, goats and sheep) are reared in traditional systems such as nomadic or pastoral, mixed farming and peri-urban systems (MINEPIA, 2014, 2020). Grazing herds are normally fed on natural pastures, characterized generally by annual grass species. However, these traditional livestock systems cause stress and expose animals to several parasitic diseases, especially in areas with frequent rainfall, relatively high humidity, and mild temperatures (Hansen and Perry, 1994, Hamid et al., 2016; Rossanigo and Gruner, 1995; Taylor et al., 2016; Tembely et al., 1997; Urquhart et al., 1996). Also, the occurrence of flooding, water pools and swamps are important habitats for the propagation of snail intermediate hosts of flukes and stages of other parasites (Ntonifor et al., 2013; Rossanigo and Gruner, 1995; Taylor et al., 2016; Tembely et al., 1997; Urquhart et al., 1996).

Knowledge of cattle breeders on GI parasitic diseases (Ntonifor et al., 2013), and different GI parasite species of cattle (Atanga et al., 2019, 2024; Chollet et al., 1994; Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012; Ntonifor et al., 2013; Takang et al., 2020; Takeet et al., 2016) as well as GI parasitic infections (57.4% in cattle) as the most prevalent infectious diseases of livestock (Mouiche et al., 2023) have been reported in different parts of Cameroon. However, GI parasite species/burden may differ with agro-ecological zone, and there is dearth of information on the awareness of hazards caused by GI parasites on husbandry systems, and parasite distribution and abundance in the Cameroon. In addition, priority on infectious and contagious diseases of animals has been heightened in the country with limited attention on GI parasitic diseases. Understanding the epidemiology of GI parasite in a particular region is imperative in developing efficient and effective control programs (Waller, 2006). There is paucity of information on the epidemiology of GI parasites of cattle in Cameroon and the Northwest region. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence, fecal egg count intensity, and risk factors associated with GI parasitic infections in cattle in the Northwest region of Cameroon.

The study was carried out from November 2022 to October 2023 on cattle originating from the administrative divisions of the Northwest region of Cameroon (5o45”–9o9” N and 9o13”–11o13” E) destined for slaughter at the Bamenda municipal abattoir (Figure 1). The Northwest region of Cameroon is located at an altitude of 500 m–3000 m above sea level, and characterized by fertile volcanic soils. The choice of the study area was due to the following:

1. The Northwest region is ranked as a major livestock production area including cattle in the country (MINEPIA, 2020), and has several grazing pasture and assembling sites for ranch farming, communal grazing, and other pastoral activities;
2. The study region has a subtropical type climate with average temperatures ranging from 21ºC–27ºC, annual rainfall of over 2259 mm, high humidity (75%–80%) and savannah vegetation with forest galleries. The region has two seasons: the rainy season from mid-March to mid-November and dry season from mid-November to mid-March (Molua, 2006; Molua and Lambi, 2006; Sedrique and Nfor, 2021; Tume, 2021). The warm humid subtropical climate and vegetation type of the study region (Molua, 2006; Molua and Lambi, 2006; Sedrique and Nfor, 2021; Tume, 2021) provides suitable conditions for the growth and development of pathogens including the stages of GI parasites (Rossanigo and Gruner, 1995; Tembely et al., 1997; Urquhart et al., 1996). There is dearth of information on the status of GI parasite infection and intensity in cattle in the Northwest region of Cameroon.
3. GI parasites have been detected in domestic ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats), and mostly in small ruminants (sheep and goats) in different parts of the country (Atanga et al., 2019, 2024; Chollet et al., 1994; Ebene et al., 2022; Mouiche et al., 2023; Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012; Ntonifor et al., 2013; Takang et al., 2020; Takeet et al., 2016). Additionally, there are many ethnic agropastoral communities with strong cultures of livestock rearing for livelihood with mix livestock husbandry being widely practiced in the region.

Determination of the prevalence and intensity of GI parasite infection in cattle was done at the Bamenda municipal abattoir. Selection of individual cattle at the abattoir during the study period was done using previously described systematic random sampling technique (Modupe et al., 2017). An individual prevalence rate of 56.7% (Ntonifor et al., 2013) was used to estimate the sample size (Thrusfield, 2007) and animal selection sampling procedure was done as previously described (Zachée et al., 2020). Briefly, based on a calculated sampling fraction of five (every fifth animal was sampled) for daily use, the first animal was selected by picking one animal by random generation method of the first five animals on the slaughter chain. Thereafter, every fifth animal (adding 5 to previous picked number) was chosen.

Faecal samples were collected per rectum into well-labelled sterile polythene bags and transported in ice packs (Adedipe et al., 2014) to the Parasitology laboratory of the Northwest Regional Delegation for Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, Bamenda.

The sedimentation and floatation techniques described by Taylor et al. (2016), and Thienpont et al. (2003) were used to detect the presence of nematode, cestode and trematode eggs, and coccidian oocysts, while the McMaster technique was used to estimate the number of eggs per gram (EPG) of faeces (Thienpont et al., 2003) as previously described. A sample was considered positive when a minimum of one GIP egg/oocyst was detected under the microscope. Eggs were identified based on their morphological features (Taylor et al., 2016).

Given that the composition and pathogenicity of parasite populations may differ from area to area due to different climatic zones (Hansen and Perry, 1994; Hamid et al., 2016; Rossanigo and Gruner, 1995; Taylor et al., 2016; Tembely et al., 1997; Urquhart et al., 1996), the GI parasite infections was categorized based on faecal egg counts in mixed infections as previously described (Hansen and Perry, 1994; Mollah et al., 1996) with slight modification. Briefly, the degree of infections was graded into five categories as no infection, light, moderate, heavy and very heavy infection according to their egg per gram of faeces (EPG) counts. Egg counts of ≤ 200 (50–200), 201–800, 801–1200 and > 1200 eggs per gram of faeces were considered as light, moderate, heavy and very heavy infections, respectively. Information related to breed, sex, age and body condition score of the sampled animals were noted prior to slaughter. Estimation of ages was done by dental inspection and examination of horn rings for animals without teeth (especially old/adult females) and classified according age at slaughter (young/immature ≤ 3 years, Adult/Matured 3 to 6 years, old > 6 years) while the breed of the animals was obtained as previously described (Blench, 1999; Fassi, 2006; MINEPIA, 2002; Turton, 1999). The body condition score was done by assessing the general appearance and palpation of the lumbar region of the animal on a scale of 1 to 5 and further classed into 3 categories: 1–2 (thin), 3 (moderate) and 4–5 (fat) as previously described (Natumanya et al., 2008).

All obtained data were initially entered into Excel 2010 and transferred to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA) for further analysis. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square test, odds ratios from logistic regression, and Student’s t-test (Thrusfield, 2007) in SPSS version 20. Significance was set at p<0.05. The univariate analysis (chi-square test) was used to assess the association between factors and logistic regressions (Odds-ratios) to determine the strength of association of different factors with the prevalence of GI parasite infection in cattle. The 95% confidence interval of proportions was calculated according to Wilson’s equation p±z√((p(1-p))/n), where p is the sample proportion, n is the sample size and z is 1.96, the z-score for a 95% confidence interval. The student t- test was used to compare mean intensity of GI parasites on the study animals. The statistical significance was set at P<0.05.

Risk assessments of the project were performed by the researchers to avoid hazards to all persons and animals involved in the study. Permission for the study and ethical approval were obtained from the required authorities in Bamenda-Cameroon [Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries (MINEPIA) Ref No: MINEPIA/DREPIA/NW/107/40 of 02/11/2022] before carrying out the study. The purpose of the study was explained (with the assistance of resident veterinarians, local community leaders and or trusted intermediaries) to the targeted participants (owners, traders, and butchers) of the Bamenda municipal abattoir. An animal was included in the study after an informed verbal consent was given by the owner or trader-butcher. Apart from procedural restraining manipulations for safety purposes, the animals used in the present study were not subjected to suffering.

Prevalence and assessment of associated factors of gastrointestinal parasites in cattle slaughtered in Bamenda

The cattle slaughtered at the Bamenda municipal abattoir were predominantly zebu breeds, with Red Fulani being the most common, followed by White Fulani and Gaudali, as well as crossbreeds (zebu and exotic). The results revealed that cattle from various administrative divisions within the Northwest region harboured different types of GI parasites, and the rate of infection was high (Figure 2). Out of the 1907 cattle examined, 1524 [79.92% (78.05–81.69] were infected with one or more of the following parasite species; 53.91 % trematodes [Fasciola (19.09%) and Paraphistomum (39.43%), and Dicrocoelium (0.16%)]; 65.39% nematodes [Ascaris (3.67%), Bunostomum (1.05%), Trichostrongylus (31.25%), Oesophagostomum (16.83%), Chabertia (6.19%), Haemonchus (16.10%), Cooperia (6.24%), Nematodirus (2.57%), Ostertagia (2.52%), Trichuris (13.48%), Dictyocaulus spp. (3.83%) and Capillaria spp. (0.05)]; 1.73% cestodes [Monezia (1.73%)], and protozoa, Emeria spp. (10.23%) (Figure 2 and Table 1).

Of the 1524 cattle infected, 392 (25.72%) had single infection and 1132 (74.28%) had mixed infections (Table 1). The study revealed that mixed infections (96.41%) were more common than single (3.59%) infections. Paramphistomum spp. (46.35%), Trichostrongylus spp. (41.69%), Fasciola spp. (24.25%), Oesophagostomum spp. (16.45%), Haemonchus spp. (15.78%), and Trichuris spp. (16.78%) were the most prevalent parasites in the two parasite mixed associations, and Paramphistomum spp. (60.00%), Trichostongylus spp. (54.88%), Haemonchus spp. (35.93%), Oesophagostomum spp. (34.39%), Trichuris spp. (23.41%) and Eimeria spp. (20.98%) were predominant in the three parasite mixed associations. For the more than three parasite mixed associations, Paramphistomum spp. (>83.12%), Trichostrongylus spp. (>62.50%), Fasciola spp. (>41.67%), Haemonchus spp. (>41.67%), Oesophagostomum spp. (>37.50%), Trichuris spp. (35.83%) and Eimeria spp. (39.17%) were the most frequently observed (Table 1).

Table 1: Prevalence and distribution of gastrointestinal parasites according to type of parasite associations in infected animals Cattle in Northwest region, Cameroon.

N: total number of animals examined. n (%): number of infected animals (proportion of infected animal). GIP: Gastrointestinal parasite.

Table 2: Prevalence and assessment of potential risk factors of gastrointestinal parasites of cattle in northwest region, Cameroon.

* Fisher Exact Probability test, two tailed; N: total number of animals examined; n : number of animals examined; %: proportion of infected animal; EPG: eggs per gram.

The prevalence of GI parasites in cattle slaughtered in Bamenda according to the studied endogenous and exogenous factors is presented in Table 2. The results showed no significant difference (p>0.05) between the proportion of infected cattle based on sex or age. However, factors such as breed, body condition score (BCS), division of origin, co-infections, intensity of infection as well as season, significantly (p<0.01) influenced prevalence rates (Table 2). The prevalence rates were highest in crossbreeds [86.67% (59.54–98.34)], lean/thin animals [93.94% (79.77–99.26)], Donga Mantung [84.92% (79.18–89.59)] and during rainy season [83.99% (81.94–85.59)]. On the other hand, and lowest prevalence rates were recorded in Gaudali cattle [74.42% (67.22–80.76)], fat animals [78.51% (76.44–80.49)], and cattle from Mezam division [74.19% (68.94–78.97)] and during dry season [69.42% (65.31–73.31)]. The Red Fulani [OR=3.32 (95%CI; 1.61–3.34); χ2=20.96, P<0.0001] and White Fulani [OR=1.93 (95%CI; 1.38–2.69); χ2=15.30, P<0.0001] breeds, as well as lean/thin [OR=4.24 (95%CI; 1.01–17.81); χ2=4.61, P=0.032], and medium [OR=1.89 (95%CI; 1.27–2.80); χ2=10.26, P=0.001] animals were more likely to be infected with the GI parasites compared to the Gaudali breed, and fat animals, respectively. The highest prevalence rates were observed in cattle from Donga Mantung, followed by Bui, Momo and Boyo divisions, while the lowest rates were recorded in animals from Mentchum, Ngoketunjia, and Mezam divisions. In this light, cattle originating from Bui [OR=1.55 (95%CI; 1.10–2.17); χ2=6.49, P=0.011] and Donga Mantung [OR=1.96 (95%CI; 1.23–3.12); χ2=8.24, P=0.004] divisions were more likely to be infected compared to animals originating from Mezam division. Furthermore, infection rates were significantly higher during the rainy season [OR=2.13 (95%CI; 1.83–2.92); χ2=50.79, P<0.0001] than during the dry season (Table 2).

The infection rates were significantly (p<0.0001) different between mixed parasite infected animals and the category of intensity of infection. Co-infections with 2 or more parasites [59.36% (57.16–61.56)] were significantly higher [OR = 5.30 (4.60–6.10); χ2 = 574.18; p<0.0001)] than single (01) parasite infections [20.56% (18.76–22.44)]. Mixed parasite associations were widely observed, with significant differences (p<0.05) recorded among the various combinations in infected animals. Animals with 2 mixed parasite infection showed significantly higher (p<0.05) prevalence compared to animals with 3, 4 and more than 4 mixed parasite co-infections (Table 2).

In the present study, animals were more likely infected with single parasite [OR=3.64 (95%CI; 2.93–4.51); χ2=152.27, p<0.0001)] and double combinations [OR=6.87 (95%CI; 5.58–8.46); χ2=396.92, p<0.0001], and triple [OR=4.08 (95%CI; 3.29–5.06); χ2=184.29, p<0.0001] parasite combinations compared to animals with more than 3 mixed parasite combinations (Table 2).

The results revealed that sex, age, breed, body condition score (BCS), location of origin, and season significantly (p<0.0001) influenced prevalence rates of GI parasites based on types of mixed parasite association (Table 3) and the category of intensity of infection (Table 4). The Red Fulani, White Fulani, male, 3 to 6 years old, and fat (good body condition) cattle showed the highest (p<0.05) prevalence rates regardless of the type of parasite association (Table 3) and or the category of infection intensity (Table 4), when breed, sex, age group and body condition scores were considered. Similarly, the highest (p<0.05) prevalence rates, irrespective of mixed parasite association (Table 3) and infection intensity (Table 4) were recorded in animals from Bui, Menchum and Mezam divisions, as well as during the rainy season compared to other divisions and the dry season, respectively.

Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitic infections, including single parasite and co-infections were recorded throughout the study period (Figure 3). The monthly prevalence ranged from 60.83–98.57% for infections with at least 1 parasite type. Infection rates varied as follows; 7.14–34.36%, 25.71–40.91%, 8.57–40.25% and 1.99–21.43% for infections with single parasite types, two, three and more than three parasite associations, respectively.

The detection rates of GI parasites varied widely between season with significant differences (p<0.05) in the seasonal and monthly rates, and with several fluctuating peaks observed during the months of November, April, June and September irrespective of the type of parasite association, for infections involving at least 1 parasite type (Figure 3). Furthermore, regression analysis of the overall infection rates recorded during the study period revealed a slope with a positive gradient (Y = 2.6785X + 61.403; R2 = 0.6095) suggesting an increase in the trend from dry season [(69.42%; 95% CI: 65.31–73.31)] to rainy season [(83.99%; 95% CI: 81.94–85.59)] in GI parasites detection rates in cattle slaughtered at the Bamenda municipal abattoir (Figure 3).

The distribution of the relative abundance of GI parasites based on worm egg count (or oocysts count for Emeria spp.) per gram of faeces (EPG) according to associated risk factors, mixed parasite associations in infections, and category of intensity of infection are shown in Tables 5 and 6, respectively. Calculation of the EPG data obtained showed significant variations about the average EPG values among infected animals in the study. Though the average EPG obtained in the study based on the intrinsic (breed, sex, age, BCS) and extrinsic (location, Season) factors were < 800, EPG suggesting light (EPG ≤ 200) intensity of GI infections, moderate (200 < EPG ≤ 800), heavy (800 < EPG ≤ 1200) and very heavy (EPG > 1200) intensity GI infections were also frequently observed across all factors

Table 3: Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite associations of cattle in northwest region, Cameroon according to breed, sex, age, body condition score and season.

Table 4: Prevalence of categories of intensity of gastrointestinal parasite infection of cattle in northwest region, Cameroon according to breed, sex, age, body condition score and season.

Table 5: Intensity of categories of intensity of gastrointestinal parasite infection of cattle in northwest region, Cameroon according to breed, sex, age, body condition score and season.

(breed, sex, age, BCS, location and season) (Table 5). Among the infested cattle in the study, the relative average GI parasite intensity was comparable or similar between age groups and breeds except for crossbreeds which had revealed lower intensities (Table 5). However, the average GI parasite intensity seemed higher (P>0.05) in female animals and during the rainy season compared to male animals and the dry season, respectively. Poor body condition score favoured higher GI parasite intensity with lean/thin animals showing the highest intensities followed by medium and fat animals. The average GI parasite intensity was higher in animals from Bui division and lower (p>0.05) in those from Ngokentunjia division respectively, compared to those from the other divisions (Table 5).

The present results showed average GI parasite intensities (EPG) of 93.01±47.57, 450.55±154.67, 974.50±130.70 and 3389.44±2843.17 for light (EPG < 200), moderate (200 < EPG ≤ 800), heavy (800 < EPG ≤ 1200) and very heavy (EPG > 1200) infection intensity categories respectively. While the GI parasite intensity for single (182.02±495.05 EPG) and 2 mixed parasite (488.12±882.05 EPG) infections revealed light and moderate intensities category, heavy intensity of infection was seen in 3 mixed parasite (1143.17±1756.16 EPG) infections, and very heavy intensity for more than 3 mixed parasite (1890.83±2661.86 EPG) infections (Table 5). The average GI parasite intensity increased with the number of parasites in the type of parasite association, reaching its highest level in animals that harboured more than 3 GI parasite associations, followed by those with 3, 2, and single parasites infections. Heavy and very heavy intensities were also observed in animals infected with 3 and more parasite associations, except for crossbreeds (Table 5).

Overall, light intensity-infections (EPG < 200) were observed among individual parasite in the study, among which Oesophagustomum spp. (140.14 ± 623.57), Trichostrongylus spp. (158.73±540.89), Haemoncus spp. (112.77 ± 550.96) and Trichuris spp. (52.75 ± 237.66) showed higher EPG values compared to the other GI parasites.

Table 6: Intensity of gastrointestinal parasite associations of cattle in northwest region, Cameroon according to breed, sex, age, body condition score and season.

Gastrointestinal parasites are among the major parasitic diseases that affect cattle productivity in the Northwest region of Cameroon. These parasites, especially parasitic worms cause significant economic losses due to, anemia, diarrhea, poor growth, low weight gain, decreased reproductive effectiveness, condemnation of affected organs, and mortality in infected animals. In addition, some of these parasites, such as Trichostrongylus and Fasciola spp. have zoonotic potential, posing risks to human health. Gastrointestinal parasites which cause direct and indirect production losses include; Nematodes, Trematodes, Cestodes and Protozoa have been widely reported in cattle in tropical and subtropical regions (Adedipe et al., 2014; Ntonifor et al., 2013; Pfukenyi et al., 2007; Tiele et al., 2023; Umar et al., 2018; Waruiru et al., 1998). The prevalence and intensity of GI parasites are influenced by several factors, including variations in animal immunity, environmental factors such as climate, as well as feeding and management conditions of the animals.

Gastrointestinal helminthes and Eimeria spp. infections have been widely reported in cattle, and differences in prevalence rates and infection intensity attributed to variations in immunity of the animals, environmental factors such as climate, as well as feeding and management conditions of the animals. The present study revealed an overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitic infection was over 79% with an average infection intensity of about 560 EPG. This study provides valuable information on the burden of GI parasites among cattle in the Norwest region of Cameroon, as the animals slaughtered in this abattoir are representative of the cattle population across the entire region. Nematode and trematode infections were particularly high and similar to previous reports of prevalence for nematode (71.7%, 32.68%), trematode (26.5%, 11.22%) and cestodes (2.01%, 0.49%) in Nigeria (Adedipe et al., 2014; Takeet et al., 2016), respectively. The present study also agrees with those of Hamid et al. (2016) who found that infections with nematodes were common especially Strongyles (54%) than other types of worms, followed by trematodes with Paramphistomum spp. being the most prevalent (39.43%), followed by Fasciola spp. (19.09%). High nematode and trematode infections have significant negative impact on livestock productivity, leading to reduction in production potentials such as decreased growth rate, weight loss in young calves, delayed maturity of the animals, decreased milk production, and reduced endurance in working animals (Adedipe et al., 2014; Ekong et al., 2012; Swai et al., 2006). Cestodes (1.73%) and Emeria (10.23%) infections were less common. However, cestode and trematodes are of significant are of zoonotic and public health concern. Fasciola spp. is a zoonotic liver trematode notable for causing huge economic losses and health problems (Adedipe et al., 2014; Atanga et al., 2019, 2024; Ekong et al., 2012; FAO, 2000; Hamid et al., 2016; Takang et al., 2020).

The overall prevalence of GIPs reported in this study was similar with findings in other regions, such as, 81.4% in Douala Abattoir Cameroon (Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012), 80.17% in Bangladesh (Akter et al., 2023), 80.71% in Nigeria (Luka et al., 2018b) and 95.5% in Southern Ghana (Squire et al., 2013). However, it was higher than 56.7% reported in Jakiri, Bui Division, Cameroon (Ntonifor et al., 2013), 65.96% in Central Java Indonesia (Hamid et al., 2016) and 41-67% in different parts of Nigeria (Adedipe et al., 2014; Edosomwan and Shoyemi, 2012; Elele et al., 2013; Luka et al., 2018b; Nwigwe et al., 2013). On the contrary, it was lower than 95.12% reported in Abeokuta Nigeria (Takeet et al., 2016). Several factors could be attributed to these observed differences in GI parasite prevalence rates including; the periods or seasons in which the studies were conducted, location or source/origin of cattle sampled, differences in geographical and climatic conditions as well as environmental and ecological factors (Abass et al., 2020; Adedipe et al., 2014; Ebene et al., 2022; Hamid et al., 2016; Luka et al., 2018a; Menkir et al., 2007; Takeet et al., 2016; Tembely, 1998; Urquhart et al., 1996).

The GI parasite species identified in this study aligns with those previously identified in cattle (Abass et al., 2020; Abdoulmoumini et al., 2015; Chollet et al., 1994; Ebene et al., 2022; Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012; Ntonifor et al., 2013) and goats (Mengoue et al., 2025; Nack et al., 2024; Pamo et al., 2006; Tchoumboue et al., 2000) in different parts of Cameroon. Mixed livestock husbandry which includes domestic ruminants (Cattle, goats and sheep) is usually practiced using traditional systems such as nomadic or pastoral farming, mixed farming and peri-urban systems. Management systems range from free-range or extensive systems on natural grazing in less populated areas, to year-round confinement and cut-and-carry feeding in densely populated areas (MINEPIA, 2014, 2020; Ntonifor et al., 2013). The findings of this study suggests that the observed similarities in GI parasite profiles could be attributed to the free movement and exposure of the animals to common conditions, such as ecology, pasture quality and humidity which are prevalent in the agro-ecological zones of Cameroon, and provides suitable environments for various livestock production and occurrence of GI parasite. In this study, the sampled cattle were sourced from across the entire Northwest region (seven administrative divisions) of Cameroon before being transported to the Bamenda Municipal abattoir.

In the present study, more male animals than females were sampled. Although GI parasite intensity seemed to be higher in females than in males, male animals were observed to be more aggressive during feeding and heavier feeders than females and thus more likely picked up worm eggs/ova and coccidia oocytes while grazing. However, the findings revealed that neither sex nor age group significantly influenced the prevalence of GI parasites in cattle, and both the male and female animals and all age groups (≤ 3 years, 3 to 6 years and > 6 years old) of animals had an equal likelihood of being infected with GI parasites. While some studies have reported no influence of sex on GI parasite infection rates (Abass et al., 2020; Adedipe et al., 2014; Ebene et al., 2022; Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012), others have observed significant differences (Qadeer et al., 2018). Previous reports have suggested that male animals were more susceptible to GI parasite infections than the female animals due to hormones debilitating immune functions, which favour growth and spread of parasites in the GI tracks of male animals (Adedipe et al., 2014; Apio et al., 2006; Urquhart et al., 1996). Contrarily, female animals were more likely to be infected during pregnancy due to stress and decreased immune competence (Urquhart et al., 1996). Furthermore, poor feeding practices, and inadequate veterinary care which play major role in the susceptibility of animals to GI parasite infections (Awa and Achukwi, 2009) as well as the slaughter of pregnant (Hakoueu et al., 2021, 2018) were commonly observed in the study region and abattoir.

Breed, body condition score (BCS), division of origin, co-infections, infection category, and season significantly influenced prevalence rates of GI parasites. These findings agree with previous studies that reported similar influences due to these factors on GI parasites infection of cattle (Abass et al., 2020; Adedipe et al., 2014; Qadeer et al., 2018; Takeet et al., 2016). The differences in the prevalence could be due to the presence of favourable environmental conditions necessary for the survival and development of GI parasite life stages (Hamid et al., 2016; Rossanigo and Gruner, 1995; Tembely et al., 1997; Urquhart et al., 1996). Lean-thin and moderate animals showed higher prevalence and harboured more GI parasites in this study contrary to Adedipe et al. (2014) who reported that cattle with moderate body condition score had higher prevalence of GI helminths compared to those that were emaciated. The management system of animals (Regassa et al., 2006), and other factors such as better immunity and nutritional status of medium and fat animals (good BCS) in this study provided better protection and/or tolerance against GI parasite infections. Consequently, these animals often remain asymptomatic during the study period (Adedipe et al., 2014; Moreau and Chauvin, 2010). On the other hand, malnutrition contributes to the lack of or weakened immunity and increases susceptibility of animals to both single and mixed parasite infections (Hamid et al., 2016; Hughes and Kelly, 2006; Moreau and Chauvin, 2010). In agreement with previous works (Abass et al., 2020; Abdoulmoumini et al., 2015; Adedipe et al., 2014; Akter et al., 2023; Ebene et al., 2022; Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012; Ntonifor et al., 2013), mixed GI parasite infections, which is defined as the presence of two or more GI parasite species, were more prevalent than single infections in this study. Mixed GI parasite infections cause stress leading to immunosuppression of the host immune system which increases host susceptibility to diseases including GI parasites (Moreau and Chauvin, 2010), resulting in severe morbidity and reduced production in livestock (Kumsa and Wossene, 2007; Kumsa et al., 2011). Additionally, factors such as differences in geographic location, climatic conditions, disease resistance, and grazing behavior have been associated with mixed GI parasite infections (Akter et al., 2023).

In this study, significant variations were observed around the average egg per gram (EPG) values in infected animals. The average EPG, based on intrinsic factors (breed, sex, age, body condition score [BCS]) and extrinsic factors (location, season), were below 800 EPG, indicating light to moderate intensities of GI parasite infections. However, heavy (800 < EPG ≤ 1200) and very heavy (EPG > 1200) intensities of infections were also widely recorded across all factors (breed, sex, age, BCS, location, and season), including in animals with two or more mixed GI parasite associations. Heavy mixed gastrointestinal helminth infections in cattle can cause significant health and gross economic impact. These infections can result in reduced growth rates, decreased productivity, poor reproductive performance, increased susceptibility to other diseases and even death (Adedipe et al., 2014; Swai et al., 2006; Ekong et al., 2012; FAO, 2000; Hamid et al., 2016; Takang et al., 2020).

The low prevalence (10.23%) and average intensity (<100 oocysts per gram [OPG]) of Eimeria spp. observed in this study suggest that adult cattle, which are predominantly brought for slaughter, still harbour coccidia infections, and that infection with coccidia occurred in adult cattle. Adult cattle often develop immunity and become asymptomatic carriers due to repeated exposure, serving as reservoirs of infection for more susceptible juvenile animals (Abebe et al., 2019; Mengoue et al., 2025) due to low levels of immunity. Subclinical coccidial infections caused by one or more Eimeria species (Hamid et al., 2016) and a low prevalence (20.90%) of Eimeria spp. in cattle (Ntonifor et al., 2013) have also been reported previously. However, the high prevalence and intensities of GI parasite infections recorded in juvenile animals in the present study was associated to failure in separating young animals from the adults and older animals in the various husbandry systems, overgrazing of infested pastures as well as inappropriate and inadequate use of anthelmintics by farmers. Numerous studies have documented wide variations in GI parasite intensity around average EPG values (Ebene et al., 2022; Ntonifor and Ndaleh, 2012; Ntonifor et al., 2013), and mixed GI parasite infections in ruminants (Abass et al., 2020; Adedipe et al., 2014; Akter et al., 2023; Belem et al., 2001; Chollet et al., 1994; Ebene et al., 2022; Luka et al., 2018b; Mengoue et al., 2025; Mohamed et al., 2023; Ntonifor et al., 2013; Terfa et al., 2023) with varying infection intensity categories. Therefore, farmers should be educated on the importance of using their own pasture, rotation of grazing pastures and having feed reserves to ensure safe feed for their cattle during periods of scarcity. Also, anthelminthic treatment of animals by farmers at every 3–4 months (Ntonifor et al., 2013) and inter-seasonal periods to reduce infection rates and the risk of re-infection is recommended.

The animals used in this study were destined for slaughter and human consumption and selected from the farms located in the administrative divisions of the Northwest region of Cameroon. They were apparently in clinical healthy states and transported usually by trekking (50–80 km for 2–3 days) to the Bamenda municipal abattoir and judged fit for slaughter following standard antemortem inspection procedures as described by the Cameroon veterinary services (MINEPIA, 2000) and supported by manuals on routine meat inspection (FAO, 1994; Grist, 2011). However, the rates and intensity of GI parasite infections obtained in the present study could be under-estimations of the exact situation in the region. Animals that were in poor health and unfit for transportation to the Bamenda municipal abattoir were not selected in the farms around at the level of the divisions. Also, the evolution of GI parasites in infected animals was not investigated since repeat sampling and analysis of the studied animals was not done.

This study demonstrates a high prevalence and significant burden of both single and mixed gastrointestinal parasitic infections in cattle across the Northwest region of Cameroon. Juvenile and old animals showed high and similar prevalence rates and intensities of GI parasite infections. The study clearly indicates that season, location, breed, body condition score influenced the variations in GI parasite prevalence and intensity of infections. GI parasitic diseases severely affect animal health and production, leading to reduction in performance and productivity, including slower growth rates, delayed maturity, and reduced weight gains. These challenges hinder the efforts of stakeholders to achieve self-sufficiency in food and animal-derived products. Therefore, to mitigate the adverse effects of GI parasites, effective control measures that make use of the variations in GI parasite prevalence and intensity among the associated risk factors coupled with rational use of anthelmintics must be implemented. Therefore, the assistance of the veterinary services to educate livestock farmers on the importance of using their own pasture, pasteur rotation and having feed reserves to ensure safe feed for their cattle during periods of scarcity; and to strategically deworm their animals with broad spectrum anthelmintics especially at the beginning and end of rainy seasons should be emphasised. Further investigation should be done on the zoonotic potentials GI parasites of cattle and its public health significant in concerned communities. Investigation of the evolution of GI parasites in infected animals would be vital to better understand the degree of influence of risk factors and development of control measures including deworming protocols.

The authors are grateful to the Delegation for Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries of Northwest Region Cameroon for allowing the collection and analysis of faecal samples from abattoir cattle. The authors also appreciated the generous cooperation of the cattle professionals of the Bamenda municipal abattoir, Cameroon.

This study has highlighted the high prevalence, intensity and significant impact of single and mixed gastrointestinal (GI) parasite infections in cattle in the Northwest region of Cameroon.

MCK, BKN and JAN conceived, designed and coordinated the study. MCK, BKN, PYL and JAN designed data collections tools, methodology and implementation. MCK, PYL, BKN, and PJD contributed materials and carried out field investigation and data entry. MCK and JAN supervised the field and laboratory work as well as data entry. MCK, BKN, PYL and JAN were involved in data validation, statistical analysis and interpretation. MCK and BKN drafted the original manuscript which was reviewed and edited by JAN. All authors participated in preparation and critical reviewed of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

No specific funding was received for this study.

The authors declare that they have not used generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the drafting, reviewing and editing process of this article before submission.

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.