Microbial Bio stimulants as Sustainable Strategies for Enhancing Plant Resistance to Viral Diseases: Mechanisms and Applications

Farmers have been using agricultural techniques since the dawn of humanity. Because they relied on farming and proficiency with agrarian methods, humans were able to escape hunting and poaching and achieve food security. Since then, many farming techniques have evolved. The use of pesticides and herbicides has expanded globally to increase productivity and fight harmful microorganisms and pests (Herrera et al., 2021). To solve the world’s hunger and food demand, crop modification and fortification techniques have gained popularity. When King Franklin (2004) wrote famers of forty centuries at the beginning of the twentieth century, he discussed the advantages of sustainable agriculture (King Franklin, 2004). The broad use and improvement of microbial biostimulants in sustainable farming methods are constrained by this knowledge gap. By investigating the mechanisms of action of microbial biostimulants and their possible uses in boosting plant resistance to viral infections, this review seeks to close this gap.

It was cautioned that these methods will be essential to agriculture in the future. According to reports, Australian agronomist Gordon McClymont first used the term, but it gained popularity towards the end of the 1980s (Frederick, 2004). The last several decades have seen a rise in the popularity of environmentally friendly technologies, leading to the proposal and widespread use of a huge range of different technologies, including agronomy practices, and the management of physical or biological. According to the emerging theory of sustainable agriculture, plant systems possess a great deal of self-defense capability, which enables disease protection while also having a good environmental impact (Alonso-Martínez et al., 2024).

In their life cycle, plants experience a variety of pressures, including biotic stressors like insects, bacteria, fungi, and nematodes, as well as abiotic stressors including salt, drought, pollution, nutritional imbalances, and environmental contaminants (Khaleeq et al., 2023). The plant’s innate and adaptive immunity serves as the foundation for its tolerance or immunological response to these stimuli. In contrast to other plant illnesses brought on by bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and other microbes are difficult to manage using chemical means (Mumford et al., 2016). Viral illnesses are a significant factor that should be treated seriously because of the magnitude of the economic loss, the costs of managing the sickness, and the advent of new or evolved virus infections. Accordingly, viral infections pose a serious risk to global agricultural production and result in losses of billions of dollars annually (Munir et al., 2022).

Depending on the gene makeup, plant viruses are categorized as either viruses RNA or DNA, although plant viral illnesses vary in severity and the loss they cause. Their genetic material may be further classified as single-stranded DNA like (ssDNA), double-stranded DNA like (dsDNA), single-stranded RNA like (ssRNA), and double-stranded DNA like (dsDNA) (Nicaise, 2014). DNA viruses also play a significant role in disease situations, particularly from Asian and Indian viewpoints, even though the bulk of plant viruses are RNA in type. Plant pathogens like other pathogens are obligatory in natural parasites since they are without their reproduction mechanism. Because pathogens rely upon their hosts for replication and development, they alter the plant system physiologically in several ways (Shaheen et al., 2024). Typical signs of a viral infection include leaf bending, leaf rolling, yellow blotches or patterns, plant stunting, and dwarfing. Furthermore, there are other ways that viruses might spread, including through nematodes, seeds, insect vectors, and plant material interaction. Controlling a specific viral illness or trying to develop resistance to it is therefore a difficult undertaking. Early identification is a crucial first step in controlling the consequences of viral diseases (Jiang and Zhou, 2023).

To identify a particular virus or viral isolate, specific methods are required, such as immunoassays using specific antibodies against that isolate. These tests come in a variety of forms, such as tissue blot immunoassay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent, and immune-strip. In labs with better technology, reliable methods like PCR, RT-PCR, and high throughput sequencing are available (Tucci et al., 2011). Even though these techniques are more expensive, they yield more consistent and dependable results, which helps create virus-resistance strategies. Plant disease incidence may now be managed through sustainable agriculture without using artificial pesticides that harm the environment or human health (Cobo et al., 2006).

Plant viral infections and sustainable agriculture are intimately intertwined, as numerous studies have shown. Reports of employing microorganisms to reduce collateral damage to various crops have surfaced in recent years. The fact that one illness or germ acts antagonistically against another, inflicting significant injury, can be used to explain this evolution. The interaction of these microorganisms ultimately leads to a reduction in crop loss or disease resistance. Conventional techniques frequently make extensive use of chemical interventions, which can have harmful effects on the environment and human health. One important area of research that this review attempts to address is the need for ecologically friendly, sustainable solutions that improve plant resilience and lower chemical inputs.

Plants can be stressed by a variety of biotic and abiotic conditions, including pollution, drought, salt, high heat, nutritional imbalances, and environmental pollutants. In order to survive or resist these stressors, plants have defensive systems that can be activated by external influences. Systemic acquired resistance, or SAR, is a plant defense mechanism that Ross first characterized in 1961. It has been demonstrated to be effective against a wide variety of plant diseases, although it behaves differently when exposed to inducer drugs (Ross, 1961).

Regarding the conservation of natural plants, the SAR mechanism offers a legitimate potential. Therefore, this is desirable to induce SAR in agronomic most important species against their very severe diseases. This circumstance altered how research characteristics were understood and created the first applicable path for two fields biotechnology and agriculture (McLaughlin et al., 2023). Using a range of cellular processes, including modifications to the plant defense mechanism, ups and downs regulations of specific genes, activation of particular transcripts factors, a high in reactive-oxygen-species (ROS), proteins of heat shock, and different more, plants use a different of methods to maintain or resistance the diseases. Hormones of Plants such as ABA, ET, SA, and JA play a vital function in the plant’s system of defense (Vitti et al., 2013).

To use plant bio stimulants to treat a specific illness, one must comprehend the intricate molecular processes involved in their development. Bio-stimulants can induce systemic resistance (ISR) and SAR in plants to increase their resilience to stressors (Dara, 2019). This study demonstrates that the synthesis of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins in crops activates the systematically acquired resistance (SAR) mechanism via the salicylic acid route upon encountering pathogens or nonharmful microbes, etc. (Samim et al., 2023). Therefore, using both methods, plants can activate a larger matrix of signal transduction pathways through certain phytohormones that function as important communication (signaling) molecules (Wilson et al., 2023).

A plant’s biotic stress is generally generated by illnesses exhibited by a huge range of pathogens, bacteria, fungi, insects’ pests, etc. These various diseases can deliver virulence factors, which are effector-like molecules in plants (Khaleeq et al., 2023). When expressed to microorganisms that cause biotic stress, plants either locally or systemically develop sophisticated defense systems against these attacks. Consequently, the effects of this biotic stress led to a significant crop loss in the agricultural sector. Potential microbial diseases can be repelled by plants via their system of immunity innates (Gorshkov and Tsers, 2022).

This leads to the development of PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) via the concept of microbes and pathogens-associated molecule patterns like MAMPs and PAMPs encoded by the host pattern-recognition-receptors PRRs and immunity activated by effectors (ETI) (Khaleeq et al., 2024). As a counter-defense mechanism, it is triggered when plants can directly or indirectly recognize effector chemicals, leading to disease resistance. It may be stated that the plant’s innate system of immunity is widely divided into (PTI or ETI) since the management of PTI or ETI prevents pathogen invasion and increases the plant’s capacity to withstand illness (Li et al., 2016).

SAR (Systemic Acquired Resistance) or ISR (Induced Systemic Resistance) are the 2 best-understood methods under which plants can create a low defensive feed-back method that leads to system resistance. When combined, SAR or ISR show effective characteristics against a wide variety of viruses. Plant hormones, also known as phytohormones, are essential for several abiotic or biotic stresses responsible for plants’ growth and development. Along with the development of SAR, SA is crucial for active defensive response against hemi-biotrophic or biotrophic diseases in plants. Increased SA levels in disease-affected plants cause pathogenesis-related (PR) genes to be induced, resulting in resistance to various diseases. By triggering an effective defensive response against a wide range of pathogen attacks, plants may modify the matching abundance of SA (Salicylic Acid), JA (Jasmonic Acid), and ET (Ethylene) at different levels, change gene expressions, or integrate confusing relationships throughout the defense signal pathways (Hönig et al., 2023).

When used on seeds, plants, or the rhizosphere, biological stimulants are substances or micro-organisms that start natural processes to promote or increase crop quality and yield, intake of nutrient efficiency, and tolerance to abiotic stress. Sea-weed extracts, HA, FA, enzymes, amino acids, protein hydrolyzates, N-containing compounds, beneficial micro-organisms, and small organic molecules are just a few of the plant’s bio-stimulants that have been used to increase crop growth and yield. In contrast to fertilizers, bio-stimulants do not directly provide plants with nutrients. Instead, by encouraging metabolic processes in the soil and plants, bio-stimulants can help with nutrient uptake (Castiglione et al., 2021).

Enzymes, proteins, amino acids, micro-nutrients, and other chemical compositions are all considered as bio-stimulants. Natural stimulants such as phenols, salicylic acid, HA (Humic Acid) and FA (Fulvic Acid), or protein hydrolases are always placed in the discipline of bio-stimulants. Because they may alter the species composition of creatures present in the soil or on plants, other living things like fungi and bacteria constitute a significant sub-group of plant bio-stimulants (Saleem et al., 2024). They might regulate the quantity of specific bacterial and fungal species or hasten the breakdown process (Tamburino et al., 2023). Arthrobacter species, Enterobacter species, Acinetobacter species, Pseudomonas species, Ochrobactrum species, Bacillus species, and Rhodococcus species are the types of beneficial bacteria used as bio-stimulants (Gaiero et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2018). Therefore, bio-stimulants are not only thought of as substances originating from plants and soil but also naturally occurring micro-organisms that can accelerate crop metabolism in a way that enhances yield and efficiently manages biotic and abiotic challenges.

Mechanisms of microbial bio-stimulation: Microbial bio-stimulant formulations consisting of beneficial micro-organisms or their metabolites aim to increase the plant growth cycle, stress tolerance, and productivity of crops through different methods that interact with both crop physiology and the process of the soil (Amin et al., 2021).

One of the several methods of microbial bio-stimulation is induced systemic resistance (ISR), which is triggered by particular bio-stimulants known as plant growth-promoting rhizobacterial (PGPR) (Besset-Manzoni et al., 2018). ISR is caused by bio-stimulation agents such as Bacillus subtilis or Pseudomonas fluorescens that live in the rhizosphere and produce a defense response through the plant’s defense mechanism. By promoting ISR, plants’ natural defense mechanisms are strengthened to protect them from different plant enemies such as environmental stresses, parasites, pathogens, etc. (Dimkic et al., 2022).

The production of hormones by the usage of bio-stimulant species such as Azospirillum and Trichoderma, like auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, which are important for many aspects of growth and development of the plant, like root elongation, lateral root formation, and flowering, is another mechanism (Çakmakçı et al., 2020). By preserving hormonal balance, bio-stimulants are a basic need for promoting this type of stimulation and increasing crop yield and quality (Zulfiqar et al., 2020). Among other ways, microbial bio-stimulants can improve the absorption through bio-stimulant bacteria like Psb (Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria) or mycorrhizal fungus and increase nutrient availability through mobilization and solubilization processes (Ye et al., 2025). Enzymes and organic amendments produced by PSB bacteria belonging to the Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Rhizobium genera break down complex forms of phosphorus into simpler ones that are easier for plants to absorb (Fatima et al., 2022; Pradhan et al., 2017). This method improves plant development and yield by increasing the availability and uptake of phosphorus. AMF establishes symbiotic relationships with plant roots to facilitate nutrient assimilation and sends their hyphae into the soil. By reducing fertilizer discharge/leaching rates, AMF improves availability and aids in the sustainable management of nutrients (Basu et al., 2018; Berruti et al., 2016; Gosling et al., 2006).

Additionally, microbial bio-stimulants increase the efficiency of plant nutrient usage, which supports more environmentally friendly farming ways (Amin et al., 2021). Through nitrogen-fixation bacteria, leguminous plants and nitrogen-fixing microbes like Rhizobium species form symbiotic relationships that reduce environmental hazards and provide direct sources of nitrogen, reducing the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers by up to 30% to 50% (Imran et al., 2021). Additionally, through optimal utilization, decreased losses, and sustainable nutrient management practices, AMF improves plants’ capacity to efficiently acquire more phosphorus, which in turn promotes sustainable nutrient management methods over time while optimizing utilization and mitigating losses (Zhang et al., 2019).

Applications for microbial bio-stimulants adding sustainable agricultural systems, horticulture, and crop production ways. Numerous research on high yield, qualitative characteristics, disease resistance, and stress tolerance in crops such as wheat have shown positive progress (Hamid et al., 2021; Rajput et al., 2019; Santini et al., 2021). Tri-Cho-derma-based bio-stimulants have helped to increase plant growth and disease prevention among different crops like tomato, cucumber, pepper, etc. On the other hand, Bacillus-based bio-stimulants, in particular, have proven beneficial for different mechanisms of plants such as increasing grain yield due to improved nutrient absorption and root development, etc.

Although they don’t directly affect the agents that cause illness, bio-stimulants are typically used in agricultural management techniques to increase output and reduce the need for chemical inputs. Bio-stimulants which is defined as animal waste obtained from biological sources that are primarily utilized in agricultural agriculture to promote plant development (Manzoor et al., 2019). They can be applied to boost crops by enhancing and supplementing conventional agricultural methods and an alternative method of administering physiological activities in the plant mechanism to promote development or lessen stress-induced situations is made possible by bio-stimulants (Yakhin et al., 2017).

Plant bio-stimulants contain ingredients and micro-organisms whose action when performed in the plant cycle, active natural process to increase the different systems in plants such as nutrient uptake, nutrient efficiency, resilient to abiotic stress, and crop parameters, according to the European Bio-stimulants Industry Council (EBIC) (Khalid et al., 2025). Regardless of whether the product contains supplements, bio-stimulants vary from conventional agricultural inputs in that they work through distinct processes than fertilizers, according to EBIC. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs), which are microbial plant bio-stimulants, can influence systemic resistance when discussing crop protection against diseases or viruses’ assault (Kumari et al., 2022).

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria “PGPR” can achieve a maximal plant development cycle through both direct and indirect processes. The direct process is linked to increasing the likelihood that plants will get nutrients in the form of biofertilizers that stimulate plant hormones for growth. The management of plant diseases, on the other hand, involves a complex indirect mechanism that might cause plants to develop systemic resistance. Numerous plant species have developed systemic resistance to a variety of plant diseases as a result of helpful bacteria (Rehan et al., 2023).

For plants to thrive and become more resilient to stress, microbial bio-stimulants are important. To address the issues of microbial cell and spore shelf life, the focus has lately shifted to using cell-free microbial exudates as bio-stimulants. New techniques and technologies have been developed to identify secondary metabolites in microbe’s exudates (Zhang et al., 2021). The difficult goal is to pin-point the exact elements and substances that, when used as bio-stimulants, improve such as plant growth cycle, yield, quality, and stress tolerance system. The bio chemical nature of bio-stimulants in microbial exudates can be ascertained by various methods (Table 1) (Ray et al., 2023; Tamandegani et al., 2020).

Microbes are first of all cultivated in the liquid broth media, and then centrifuged machine in a refrigerator, the supernatant is collected, shaken vigorously, and separated using a separating type of funnel before these studies start (Raza et al., 2024). This process uses different types of liquids such as methanol, ethanol, or ethyl acetate to extract microbial exudates. The resultant fraction is further separated and collected for a biological test and biochemical analysis to identify novel secondary metabolites as bio-stimulants (Shamikh et al., 2020).

Table 1: Detection methods and bioactive compounds of various microbes with antifungal and plant growth-promoting properties (Ansari et al., 2023).

Table 2: Key plant bio-stimulants and their effects on growth and stress mitigation (Garg et al., 2024).

There are two types of plant bio-stimulants: microbes and non-microbes. The nonmicrobial bio-stimulants include such as chitosan or other inorganic chemicals, hydroxylate proteins or other N types of containing compounds, humic acid or fulvic acids, and seaweed extraction. Conversely, bacterial endosymbionts (like Rhizobium), PGPR, and helpful fungi like AMF are examples of microbial bio stimulants. They can be endo-symbiotic, rhizospheric, and free-living. A wide variety of microorganisms in the plant-soil microbiome are present in microbial bio stimulants (Sangiorgio et al., 2020). Microbe symbiosis is a well-known or fundamental plant order system. These types of microbe symbionts live with the plants, and their primary roles include enhancing plants’ nutrition, enhancing the performance of the plant and productivity, and keeping both biotic and abiotic stressors at bay (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015). In agriculture, microbial bio-stimulants such as AMF and PGPR might be regarded as sustainable tools for accomplishing management of the crop plan. It is well recognized that AMF and PGPR improve plant development in a number of ways as compared to synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, etc. (Latif et al., 2019).

Biologic stress is a key environmental component that changes plants (Huseynova et al., 2014) and viruses significantly reduce yield, and the effects of various virus types vary (Luna et al., 2012). A thorough knowledge of plant viruses interaction requires the discovery of responses of the plant to a wide variety of pathogens that impact the plant system. Numerous plant diseases have raised serious concerns about global food security. Effective management is therefore necessary for identifying different viral infections, spreading processes, and sources of infection, since protective measurements have been attempted to prevent 25 to 30 % crop loss (Huseynova et al., 2014).

Accordingly, microbial bio-stimulants can be applied to various crops to enhance their resilience to biotic and abiotic stressors, thereby improving crop endurance, yields, and quality. For instance, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have been shown to activate systemic resistance against viral infections in crops such as tomato and cucumber (Latif et al., 2019). Similarly, in eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), PGPR have been found to induce systemic resistance, further demonstrating the broad applicability of these bio-stimulants across different plant species (Kumar et al., 2016). With seed treatment, strains of both P. fluorescens and S. marcescens consistently decrease the plants which are infected with the cucumber mosaic virus and stop the symptoms in tomatoes and cucumbers (Raupach et al., 1996). When P. fluorescens strain was applied to the soil, systemic protection again the tobacco necrosis virus inoculation was achieved (Maurhofer et al., 1998). Studies on the start of the systemic type of disease resistant in the fava beans (Vicia faba L.) against bean yellow mosaic potyvirus were conducted using seed bacterization with P. fluorescens or Rhizobium leguminosarum (El-Badry et al., 2006). P. fluorescens can provide systemic disease resistance in plants by activating many signaling pathways, such as SA-independent and JA ethylene-dependent signaling (Singh et al., 2016).

Applications of both bacteria and fungi in the environment have been found for the biodegradation of agro-chemicals. There are huge variations in the effectiveness of microbial species in bio-degrading substances. Hazardous chemicals are converted into the type of nontoxic, environmentally benign, and advantageous metabolites by the use of micro-organisms in pesticide remediation (Azubuike et al., 2016). While the focus of degradation studies is quickly shifting towards microbiological consortiums, the bio-sorption rate for a single strain is sufficient during pesticide decomposition (Villegas et al., 2014; Negi et al., 2016). Pesticide components, available mechanisms, and the promiscuity of enzymes are used to determine pesticide biodegradability (Haania et al., 2024).

Trinitrotoluene (TNT), pentachlorophenol (PCP), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are the slower ones. Atrazine, 1,3-dichloro propene, pyre thyroids, and methomyl, on the other hand, can break down more quickly. Compared to microbial consortia, axenic-grown cells are more focused on the degradation of pesticides (Bhatt, 2020). Previous studies have looked at different microbial communities that break down compounds fast, especially axenic strains. Both single and combination microbial strains work well during studies (Kanwal et al., 2024). Despite their apparent importance in metabolic research, axenic cells’ physiology and molecular makeup are linked to the breakdown of pesticides (Raza et al., 2025). Based on the effectiveness of axenic colonies in degrading pesticides, the consortium was synthesized, and the microbial consortia were shown to have enormous potential (Huang et al., 2019; Mishra et al., 2020).

The use of different types of pesticides such as herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides etc. has caused serious problems for the agricultural industry in recent years, as well as harmful side effects from these dangerous substances (Patil et al., 2016). Applying biological management rather than chemical fertilizers is a dependable way to lower the incidence rate of plant diseases without endangering the environment or human health (Tucci et al., 2011). By using living microorganisms, bio stimulants actively contribute to improved crop quality and a decrease in the usage of pesticides in different viral diseases of plants.

By causing systemic resistance in different ranges of plants as evolving bio-stimulants with different assistance, Trichoderma spp., one of the most effective microbial bio-stimulants, acts as a biological control agent against a wide range of plant viruses, including different types of fungi, bacteria, and pathogens. Understanding the unique traits of microorganisms’ resilience, ubiquity, and genetic variety allows them to play an important role in the reduction of stress. In addition to lowering fertilizer use in agricultural operations and improving the environment, the diverse range of microbe bio-stimulants can strengthen defensive methods in plants and crops with higher growth yield and quality of harvest (Shah et al., 2021). The employment of one and both bacterial or fungal viruses as an antagonistic factor upon the infection of different well-known plant pathogens is well-established and documented. The most common source of plant viral illnesses that seriously harm crops is tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Trichoderma species, a well-known and common biological control agent, activated many plant defense pathways in tobacco, triggering defensive mechanisms and systemic resistance to TMV infection (Luo et al., 2010).

More than 1200 plant species are infected by the cause of cucumber mosaic virus “CMV”, which has huge host range of any “RNA” virus or is regarded as one of the most dangerous plant pathogens. As a result, its spread on the plants could result in significant financial losses for the agricultural industry (Vitti et al., 2015). Therefore, research using T. asperellum SKT-1 again the strain of yellow Cucumber mosaic virus CMV-Y in Arabidopsis thaliana showed that the virus-induced systemic resistance. In all of the treatments of the Arabidopsis plant with the culture filtrate “CF” of SKT-1, their results show that decrease in disease severity 2 weeks post-inoculation “WPI” or “CMV” titer value using indirectly enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay “ELISA” compared to the plant More than 1200 plant species are infected by the type of cucumber-mosaic-virus “CMV”, which has the huge host-range of any “RNA” virus and is regarded as 1 of the most dangerous plant pathogens. As a result, this spread on the plants could result in significant financial losses for the agricultural industry (Vitti et al., 2015). Therefore, research using T. asperellum “SKT”-1 again the yellow strain of Cucumber mosaic virus “CMV-Y” in Arabidopsis thaliana showed that the virus induced systemic resistance.

According to (Horn et al., 2016) the T 22 strain of T. harzianum in particular shows promise as an active ingredient in treatments that are widely used to address plant diseases by putting itself into developing on the root system in the rhizosphere as a defense against pathogens (Ishaq et al., 2024). T22 demonstrated the capacity to regulate “CMV” infection in tomato cherry plants by adjusting the viral symptoms during the plant life cycle. According to case study reports, the T-22 strain of T. harzianum improved root development and crop productivity, among other things, while inducing a defense response against “CMV” in plants of tomato cherry through ROS engagement (Vitti et al., 2015).

Trichoderma species and their secondary metabolites might therefore cause resistance mechanisms in plants that are comparable to hypersensitive responses HR, ISR, and SAR (Vitti et al., 2015). Some agriculturally significant crops lose 40–70% of their yearly yield due to the mosaic disease of plants caused by begomo viruses, which is spread by whiteflies to healthy plants (Blyuss et al., 2020). A mathematics design that uses natural microbe bio-stimulants “MBs” through a medium of “RNA” interference system by silencing the principal house-keeping genes, in addition to concentrating on developing plant development, to prevent the spread of mosaic disease. By determining whether the mosaic illness has been eradicated or is maintained at a steady state, the suggested model illustrated the role of microbial biostimulants in the disease dynamics (Blyuss et al., 2020).

The use of microbial bio-stimulants in agriculture offers a sustainable approach to managing plant viral diseases. By enhancing plant resilience and reducing chemical inputs, these bio-stimulants promote healthier crops and environments. While promising, further research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms and optimize their application. Future studies should focus on elucidating the molecular interactions between microbial bio-stimulants and plant hosts, particularly in different crop species and environmental conditions. Additionally, research should explore the long-term effects of bio-stimulant application on soil health and microbial communities. Investigating the potential synergistic effects of combining bio-stimulants with other sustainable agricultural practices could also provide valuable insights. As we continue to explore these natural solutions, microbial bio-stimulants hold significant potential to improve agricultural sustainability and food security.

We want to express our gratitude to the Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology (KFUEIT), Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan, and the Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan for providing the necessary resources and support throughout the preparation of this review paper.

This review synthesizes recent findings on virus-host interactions, highlighting novel mechanisms of viral evasion and potential therapeutic targets. It provides a comprehensive overview that bridges gaps in current research and emphasizes future directions in the field.

BK, RR, SN and HZS conceived and designed the review. MUJ, MAA and MS wrote the manuscript. TR critically revised it.

This study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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The authors have declared no conflict of interest.