Numerous experimental vaccines have been effectively developed using noninfectious plant VLPs as their foundation. A substrate for antigen expression on the surfaces of over fifty-five distinct plant viruses has been established, which includes but is not limited to the potato X virus (PVX), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), alfalfa mosaic virus (AIMV), cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), and papaya mosaic virus (PapMV). TMV, PVX, CPMV, and CCMV are significantly more stable at elevated temperatures as well pH levels, and they are abundantly expressed in native plant hosts.